REESE   LIBRARY 


'1 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived       IVIAR  23  1894  ,  i8g    . 

Accessions  No .*5~L/-~} '*A3 


RECENT  PROGRESS 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


"  The  more  a  science  advances,  the  more  it  becomes 
concentrated  in  little  books."— LEIBNITZ. 


WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MA- 
CHINES AND  PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS 
FOR  DESIGNING  AND  CONSTRUCTING 
DYNAMOS,  with  an  Appendix  containing  several 
Articles  on  Allied  Subjects,  and  a  Table  of  Equivalents 
of  Units  of  Measurements.  Sixth  Thousand,  cloth, 
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UNIVERSAL  WIRING  COMPUTER.  For  De- 
termining the  Sizes  of  Wires  for  Incandescent 
Electric  Lamp  Leads  and  for  Distribution  in  General, 
Without  Calculation,  Formula  or  Knowledge  of 
Mathematics,  with  some  Notes  on  Wiring  and  a 
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PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  WINDING 
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The   W.  /.  JOHNSTON  COMPANY,  Ld., 

TIMES  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 


RECENT  PROGRESS 


IN 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS 


BEING 

A      SUMMARY      OF      CURRENT      PERIODICAL      LITERATURE 
RELATING    TO     ELECTRIC     RAILWAY     CONSTRUC- 
TION, OPERATION,  SYSTEMS,  MACHINERY, 
APPLIANCES*     ETC.,    COMPILED 


BY 


CARL    BERING, 

Author  of  "Principles  of  Dynamo-Electric  Machines," 
"Universal  Wiring  Computer,"  etc. 


NEW   YORK: 

THE  W.  J.  JOHNSTON  COMPANY,  LTD.,^' 

167-176  Times  Building. 


LONDON  : 

WHITTAKER  &  COMPANY, 
Paternoster  Square. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1892,  BY 
THE  W.  J.  JOHNSTON  COMPANY,  LD. 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  earlier  days  of  the  development  of  electrical  engineering  the 
current  literature  was  so  small  in  amount  and  the  branches  so  few 
that  the  electrical  engineer  who  wished  to  do  so  found  little  difficulty 
in  keeping  up  with  the  progress  in  every  department,  and  in  making 
sufficient  notes  or  abstracts  to  permit  of  reference  to  the  various 
sources  in  which  information  of  interest  to  him  had  been  published. 

The  progress  in  this  active  field  during  the  past  few  years  has 
been  such,  however,  that  the  volume  of  current  electrical  literature, 
as  well  as  the  number  of  branches  of  electrical  engineering,  is  be- 
coming so  great  as  to  render  it  almost  if  not  quite  impossible  for  one 
to  keep  satisfactorily  informed  of  all  that  is  going  on  in  the  different 
departments,  much  less  to  take  the  time  to  keep  notes  and  records 
that  will  enable  him  afterward  to  refer  back  to  an  article  or  descrip- 
tion that  he  knows  he  has  read,  but  does  not  remember  where. 

The  numerous  electrical  and  other  technical  journals,  which  give 
such  a  large  amount  of  valuable  information,  must  cover  so  many 
fields  that  their  bound  volumes  are  not  convenient  records  in  any  one 
branch,  besides  being  of  necessity  large  and  bulky,  and  therefore 
not  handy  for  connected  reading  or  for  subsequent  reference. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  it  is  thought  that  a  series  of  little  volumes 
in  clear,  legible  type,  well  printed  on  good  paper  and  substantially 
bound  in  cloth,  containing  a  resume  to  date  of  what  is  of  value  in 
current  electrical  literature,  will  appeal  to  those  who  do  not  wish 
to  lag  in  the  march  of  progress.  Should  this  first  volume  meet  with 
the  success  which  it  is  hoped  it  will  merit  it  is  the  intention  to  extend 

5 


6  PREFACE. 

the  series  by  issuing  other  volumes  embracing  all  the  important 
branches  of  electrical  science,  and  also  adding  to  these  from  time  to 
time  as  the  advance  in  the  respective  branches  shall  warrant. 

Each  volume  is  intended  to  contain  a  classified  summary  up  to  date 
of  the  literature  on  that  particular  branch  or  department  from  the 
time  of  the  publication  of  the  preceding  volume  on  the  same  subject, 
to  serve  not  only  as  a  record  for. reference,  but  also  as  a  book  contain- 
ing the  latest  information  obtainable  on  the  subject.  Articles  which 
have  been  published  will  be  given  in  full  or  in  abstract,  or  only  by 
reference  to  the  source,  depending  on  their  importance,  length,  etc. 

"Current  Progress  in  Electric  Railways,"  being  the  first  of  the 
series,  has  not  had  as  much  time  devoted  to  its  preparation  as  the 
compiler  would  have  liked,  and  moreover  most  of  the  material  for 
this  volume  has  been  taken  from  the  columns  of  one  journal.  In 
subsequent  volumes  it  is  intended  to  cull  from  all  the  prominent 
electrical  and  other  engineering  journals,  foreign  as  well  as  Ameri- 
can, and  to  so  arrange  and  connect  the  matter  that  the  work  shall  have 
rather  the  character  of  a  logical  summary  of  recent  progress  than 
that  of  a  mere  compilation.  It  is  aimed  to  make  these  books  standard 
works  of  their  kind.  References  by  foot  notes  and  otherwise  will  be 
made  to  articles  of  a  character  too  special  for  the  scope  of  these 
volumes,  yet  of  value  in  special  researches  or  to  special  students. 

It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  no  responsibility  is  assumed  for 
statements  compiled,  or  that  their  insertion  necessarily  implies  any 
endorsement.  A  work  of  this  kind  must  include  some  descriptive 
matter  relating  to  new  inventions,  devices,  etc.,  but  these  will  be 
regarded  from  a  technical  rather  than  from  a  commercial  standpoint. 

Any  assistance  or  suggestions  tending  to  enhance  the  usefulness  of 
these  volumes  are  solicited  and  will  be  cordially  appreciated. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

I. — Historical  Notes                                   -  9 

II. — Development  and  Statistics  23 

III. — Construction  and  Operation     -  -        35 

IV. — Cost  of  Construction  and  Operation  100 

V. — Overhead  Wire  Surface  Railways  -      136 

VI.— Conduit  and  Surface  Conductor  Systems     -        167 

VII.— Storage  Battery  Systems  188 

VIII.— Underground  (Tunnel)  Systems  206 

IX.— High  Speed  Interurban  Eailroads       -  -      247 

X. — Miscellaneous  Systems                    •  279 

XI.— Generators,  Motors  and  Trucks  -      286 

XII. — Accessories    -  354 


CHAPTER  I. 


\  J  V  f  tf 

HISTORICAL  NOTES. 

NS^OPWU 

During  the  past  year  some  interesting  informa- 
tion has  been  added  to  our  present  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  the  electric  railway,  including  also  some 
compilations,  abstracts  of  which  are  given  below 
in  order  of  date. 

1835-37. — Mr.  Frank  L.  Pope — who  may  with 
right  be  called  the  discoverer  of  the  inventor  of 
the  electric  railway — found  quite  accidentally  that 
a  certain  Thomas  Davenport  constructed  a  model  of 
a  small  electric  railway  as  early  as  1835,  which 
model  still  exists.  In  a  very  interesting  lecture  on 
electric  railways  (reprinted  in  full  in  The  Electrical 
World,  January  31, 1891,  page  81)  Mr.  Pope  remarks 
as  follows : 

"In  the  expectation  that  electricity  would  soon 
be  the  universal  motive  power,  the  problem  of 
its  utilization  was,  during  the  next  ten  years, 
(1831-41)  attacked  with  great  zeal  by  a  considerable 
number  of  inventors.  The  earliest,  as  well  as  the 
most  meritorious  of  these  was  a  Green  Mountain 
village  blacksmith,  by  the  name  of  Thomas  Daven  - 
port.  Some  time  since,  while  preparing  a  lecture  to 
be  delivered  before  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  Spring- 


10        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

field,  Mass..  I  accidentally  learned  that  this  inventor 
had  constructed  a  model  of  an  electric  railway  in 
Springfield  more  than  fifty  years  ago.  This  was 
undoubtedly  the  very  first  appearance  of  the  elec- 
tric railway  in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  work 
of  this  electrician,  and  even  his  very  name,  is 
almost  unknown  to  the  present  generation  of  labor- 
ers in  this  fertile  field. 

"  Time  does  not  permit  the  rehearsal  of  the  detailed 
story  of  his  struggles,  his  failures,  and  his  successes. 
During  the  six  years  between  1835  and  1841  he  built 
more  than  100  operative  electric  motors,  scarcely 
any  two  of  which  were  of  the  same  design,  and 
which  varied  in  size  from  a  small  model  up  to  an 
engine  capable  of  driving  a  rotary  printing-press 
for  twelve  hours  in  succession.  In  December,  1835, 
he  exhibited  in  Boston  the  model  of  an  electric  loco- 
motive and  circular  railway  which  he  had  built  in 
Springfield,  and  a  similar,  though  more  finely  fin- 
ished, model  which  was  built  by  him  the  following 
year  is  still  in  existence  in  a  good  state  of  preserva- 
tion. He  published  in  1840,  now  more  than  fifty 
years  ago,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  a  weekly  jour- 
nal called  the  Electro-Magnet  and  Mechanics'  Intel- 
ligencer, which  was  printed  upon  a  press  driven  by 
an  electro-magnetic  engine.  Some  of  his  motors, 
constructed  as  early  as  1837  and  1838,  were  admira- 
bly designed,  and  in  essentials,  even  to  the  shunt- 
winding,  differed  but  little  from  some  of  the  most 
advanced  and  successful  types  in  use  at  the  present 
day." 

In  a  paper  read  by  the  same  author  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  (re- 


HISTORICAL  NOTES.  11 

printed  in  The  Electrical  World,  March  21,  1891, 
page  228)  he  describes  the  inventions  of  Thomas 
Davenport,  from  which  we  make  the  following 
extract : 

"The  year  1837  marked  a  very  important  era  in  the 
history  of  the  industrial  development  of  electricity. 
During  that  year  two  of  the  most  extraordinary 
inventions  of  the  present  century  made  their  advent 
in  this  city  (New  York),  the  electric  telegraph  of 
Prof.  Samuel  F.  Morse  and  the  electric  motor  of 
Thomas  Davenport.  The  motor  came  first.  Daven- 
port, a  self-taught  Vermont  blacksmith,  who  had 
invented  and  constructed  his  machine  in  a  remote 
country  village  in  a  crude  form,  as  early  as  1834, 
came  to  New  York  in  February,  1837,  bringing  with 
him  some  of  the  machinery  which  had  been  made 
for  the  purpose  of  exhibition,  by  himself  and  Ran- 
som Cook,  with  a  view  of  enlisting  capital  to  build 
a  large  motor."  Mr.  Pope  found  that  several  of  the 
original  models  were  still  in  existence, one  of  these  be- 
ing shown  in  the  following  cut  (Fig.  1),  and  was  ex- 
hibited in  operation  by  him  at  his  lecture,  even  with 
the  original  three-cell  Grove  battery  of  pint  cups.  It 
is  a  circular  railwaj^,  2i  feet  in  diameter,  with  the 
locomotive  traveling  on  it.  He  thinks  that  there  is  no 
doubt  that  that  model  was  built  in  the  early  part  of 
1837,  possibly  as  early  as  1836.  The  locomotive  has  a 
fixed  field  magnet  below,  and  a  revolving  armature 
above,  through  which  the  current  is  reversed  twice 
in  every  revolution.  "So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
discover,  that  is  a  combination  found  in  every  prac- 
tical motor  to-day,  which  Davenport  was  the  first  to 
make  known  and  to  use  in  1834.  The  motor  is  con- 


12        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

nected  to  the  axle  by  bevel  gear.  The  field  magnet 
and  armature  in  the  model  are  connected  in  series. 
In  another  model  of  1837,  they  are  connected  in 
shunt." 

Further  information  about  the  electric  motors  of 
Davenport  will  be  found  under  the  history  of  motors 
in  another  volume  of  this  series. 

Mr.  Riley  Bowers  writes,  concerning  Davenport's 


FIG.  1.— DAVENPORT'S  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY. 

model  of  his  electric  railroad:  "My  father  told  his 
family  in  my  presence  that  when  Mr.  Davenport 
arrived  in  New  York  he  was  offered  $250,000.  He 
would  not  take  it,  but  took  his  model  to  England 
and  set  it  running.  Michael  Faraday  was  well 
pleased  with  it,  but  after  it  had  been  running  some 
time  it  occurred  to  him  to  try  its  power.  He  took  a 
broom  that  was  in  the  room,  put  it  against  the  fly- 
wheel, and  stopped  the  motor.  After  that  Mr.  Fara- 
day refused  to  invest,  or  recommend  it  to  others.  So 


HISTORICAL  NOTES.  13 

Mr.  Davenport  had  to  bear  all  the  expense,  and 
received  nothing  for  his  trouble." 

1850. — Thomas  Hall  is  said  to  have  made  an  elec- 
tric locomotive  that  was  "the  marvel  of  the  time." 

1851-52. — In  this  year  an  electric  locomotive  was 
constructed  by  Prof.  George  G.  Page,  using  bat- 
teries of  the  Grove  type,  for  which  experiment  Con- 
gress voted  $50,000;  it  was  tried  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad,  and  was  said  to  be  a  partial  suc- 
cess. Regarding  this  experiment,  Mr.  Pope  says: 
"It  was  a  noteworthy  achievement,  but  developed 
no  new  practice,  nor  did  it  contribute  anything  to 
the  ultimate  solution  of  the  electric  railway  prob- 
lem. Many  other  promising  experiments  were  made, 
but  all  resulted  in  failure,  until  the  very  name  of 
the  electro-magnetic  motor  became  almost  a  syno- 
nym for  'humbug.' " 

1855. — Mr.  A.  M.  Tanner  published  the  following 
facts  in  the  London  Electrical  Eeview  (reprinted  in 
The  Electrical  World,  December  19.  1891,  page 
453) :  He  states  that  Major  Alexander  Bessolo,  now 
in  Turin,  Italy,  and  at  that  time  lieutenant  in  the 
artillery  of  the  Sardinian  States,  proposed  an  elec- 
tric railway  system  in  which  an  overhead  conductor 
and  the  rails  served  as  a  circuit,  and  the  rotary  elec- 
tric motor  on  a  car  was  included  in  a  traveling  con- 
nection between  said  overhead  conductor  and  the 
rails.  In  reference  to  the  propulsion  of  cars  on  rail- 
ways, the  inventor  states  that  the  current  is  con- 
veyed to  the  locomotive  motor  machine  by  means 
of  the  rails  and  by  a  conductor  insulated  from  the 
ground  and  suspended  in  a  manner  analogous  to  tele- 
graph wires.  The  inventor  furthermore  states: 


14        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

"  Such  a  system  of  locomotion  has  many  advantages, 
because  the  current  can  conveniently  reach  inde- 
pendent vehicles  or  those  united  in  small  trains. 
Also,  encounters  or  collisions  on  the  same  track  are 
rendered  impossible,  because  the  same  current  will 
never  allow  two  trains  to  be  present  in  the  same 
section  with  a  common  conductor.  Besides,  the  gen- 
erators are  so  located  that  they  can  be  controlled 
from  the  stations." 

Mr.  Tanner  also  states  that  "in  the  same  year 
Chevalier  Bonelli,  inspector  of  telegraphs  of  the 
Sardinian  States,  invented  his  so-called  locomotive 
telegraph  system  and  worked  it  practically  between 
Paris  and  St.  Cloud,  for  which  a  French  patent  was 
granted  on  January  9,  1855.  It  showed  what  is 
known  as  the  '  third  rail  conductor '  for  conveying 
an  electric  current  to  a  translating  device  upon  a 
car  through  the  medium  of  a  contact  device  sliding 
upon  said  third  rail  conductor.  In  this  system  of 
Bonelli,  as  well  as  in  others  devised  about  the  same 
time  by  De  Castro,  Guyard,  Du  Moncel  and  others, 
for  establishing  a  telegraph  communication  between 
a  train  and  the  station,  it  was  proposed  to  use  a  con- 
ductor insulated  from  the  ground,  and  the  rails  as  a 
circuit,  and  obviously  in  all  these  systems  the  trans- 
lating device  was  in  derivation  between  the  insula- 
ted conductor  and  the  rails.  Consequently,  when 
Bessolo  stated  that  he  proposed  to  use  an  overhead 
wire  and  the  rails  of  a  railway  track  as  the  circuit  of 
a  stationary  generator  of  electricity,  he  obviously 
had  the  intention  of  completing  the  circuit  through 
a  traveling  connection  between  the  overhead  con- 
ductor and  the  rails.  This  naturally  placed  the  elec- 


HISTORICAL  NOTES.  15 

trie  motor  on  the  car  in  a  branch  or  *  leak  '  between 
the  overhead  conductor  and  the  rails,  just  as  is  the 
case  in  all  electric  railways  of  the  overhead  con- 
ductor and  trolley  type." 

I860. — Hall  is  said  to  have  exhibited  an  improve- 
ment on  his  locomotive  of  1850,  and  to  have  run  it 
upon  a  circular  track. 

1874. — Mr.  C.  J.  Van  Depoele  was  experimenting 
with  electric  motors  in  Detroit,  and  it  occurred  to 
him  that  trains  of  cars  and  even  commercial  street 
cars  could  be  run  by  electricity ;  this  was  demon- 
strated to  the  satisfaction  of  his  associates  in  vari- 
ous ways,  but  no  public  exhibition  was  made  until 
1883. 

1877. —Mr.  F.  L.  Pope  writes:  "The  credit  of 
priority  in  the  invention  of  the  electric  railway 
in  its  modern  form — that  is  to  say,  the  moving 
electro-motor  on  the  car  connected  by  electric 
conductors  with  a  stationary  dynamo — I  believe 
to  be  justly  due  to  Stephen  D.  Field,  now  of  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.,  who  was  living  in  San  Francisco 
in  1877.  This  was  about  the  time  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  cable  system  of  street  railways,  which 
was  resorted  to  in  San  Francisco,  for  the  reason 
that  some  of  the  grades  were  so  excessive  that  the 
use  of  horse  power  was  absolutely  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Observing  the  operation  of  the  cable  road,  it 
at  once  occurred  to  Field  that  electric  power  might 
be  applied  to  the  same  purpose  with  as  great  or  even 
greater  advantage.  At  that  time  no  dynamo-electric 
machines  suitable  for  this  purpose  were  be  to  had  in 
the  United  States,  and  he  accordingly  ordered  one 
from  Europe  for  experimental  purposes.  It  took  a 


1C        KECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

long  time  to  make  it,  but  at  last  it  was  completed 
and  shipped  to  San  Francisco  by  a  sailing  vessel. 
The  vessel  was  wrecked  on  the  voyage,  and  the 
machine  went  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Not  yet 
discouraged,  he  ordered  another  one,  which  eventu- 
ally reached  hirn  in  good  order,  and  enabled  him  to 
commence  Jiis  long-delayed  experiments.  He  tried 
first  an  electric  elevator,  in  which  he  was  successful. 
In  1879,  having  exhausted  his  resources,  he  came 
to  New  York,  bringing  with  him  his  plans,  with 
which  he  hoped  to  enlist  capital  to  continue  his 
work.  He  laid  these  plans  before  me,  and  being 
impressed  with  the  entire  practicability  of  his 
scheme,  I  gave  him  every  encouragement  in  my 
power.  The  plan  which  he  had  devised  contempla- 
ted the  inclosing  of  the  conducting  wire  in  a  con- 
duit beneath  the  street.  He  was  not  successful  in 
obtaining  sufficient  means  to  properly  develop  his 
invention ;  he  became  involved  in  tedious,  harassing, 
and  expensive  litigation  with  wealthy  corporations, 
and  his  health  failed  him  at  a  critical  time,  so  that 
for  years  he  was  incapacitated  from  active  work; 
but  the  single  railway  which  is  in  operation  in  this 
country  to-day,  and  embodies  his  matured  concep- 
tions, is  regarded  by  competent  judges  as  in  many 
respects  superior  to  any  yet  brought  before  the  pub- 
lic. 

1882. — The  same  writer  states :  "In  the  summer 
of  1882,  Dr.  Joseph  R.  Finney  exhibited  in  Alle- 
gheny, Pa.,  an  electric  street  car,  for  which  the 
current  was  supplied  by  a  copper  wire,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  lead  pencil,  15  or  20  feet  above  the 
street.  A  small  trolley,  fitted  with  grooved  wheels, 


HISTORICAL  NOTES.  17 

running  on  this  wire  as  on  a  track,  and  connected 
with  the  car  by  a  flexible  conducting  cord,  served 
to  convey  the  electric  current  from  the  suspended 
conductor  to  the  motor.  Some  of  the  earliest  of 
the  successful  lines  in  this  country  were  arranged 
upon  this  plan.  At  a  later  date  this  was  super- 
seded by  the  type  of  contact  wheel  now  in  gen- 
eral use,  which  runs  underneath  the  wire  and  is 
mounted  upon  the  end  of  a  long  yielding  rod  bear- 
ing a  certain  resemblance  to  a  n'shpole,  supported 
upon  the  roof  of  the  car." 

1883. — Leo  Daft  operated  a  full-sized  passenger 
car  over  the  Mt.  MacGregor  Railway  at  Saratoga. 
Van  Depoele  exhibited  a  car  in  operation  in  Chi- 
cago. Field's  electric  locomotive  was  exhibited  at 
the  Exhibition  of  Railway  Appliances  in  Chicago, 
transporting  in  the  aggregate  27,000  passengers. 

Mr.  Eugene  Griffin  states:  "When  the  Chicago 
elevated  railway  was  under  consideration,  it  was 
proposed  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility  of  utilizing 
electricity  as  a  motive  power.  A  track  400  feet 
in  length  was  built,  with  a  5  per  cent,  grade  in 
the  centre.  One  car  was  equipped  with  a  3  horse- 
power motor,  and  ran  for  several  weeks  with 
considerable  success,  carrying  crowds  of  people. 
This  was  in  February,  1883.  In  the  same  year 
an  elevated  railway  car  was  operated  electrically 
at  the  Chicago  Inter-State  Fair.  The  car  was 
suspended  from  the  truck  instead  of  being  mounted 
on  it ;  and  was  in  operation  during  the  entire  expo- 
sition— some  fifty  days. 

"On  July  27,  1884,  an  electric  car  was  running 
scheduled  trips  over  a  mile  track  of  the  East  Cleve- 


18        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

land  Street  Railway  Company,  in  Cleveland,  O. 
This  was  the  first  electric  car  in  regular  operation 
on  a  street  railway  track  in  the  United  States.  The 
motor  was  placed  between  the  wheels  and  supported 
from  the  car  body,  and  geared  to  the  axles  by  belts 
!of  spring  wire  cables.  The  current  was  conveyed 
to  the  car  by  the  conductors  supported  on  insulators 
in  a  small  wooden  conduit,  and  connection  made 
with  the  conductors  by  means  of  a  plow  extending 
through  the  slot  to  the  conduit.  This  was  the  initial 
installation  of  the  Bentley  &  Knight  system.  The 
road  was  given  up  in  1885. 

"During  the  Toronto  Annual  Exhibition  in  1884, 
an  electric  railway  some  3,000  feet  long  was  opera- 
ted from  the  entrance  to  the  grounds  to  the  main 
building.  This  was  a  conduit  road,  and  the  wires 
carried  a  potential  of  over  1,000  volts  without  acci- 
dent. A  30  horse-power  electric  locomotive  was  used 
hauling  trains  of  cars." 

1885. — Mr.  Pope  writes:  "It  is  only  six  years 
ago  that  an  electric  street  railway  was  put  in 
actual  commercial  service  in  the  United  States 
for  the  first  time.  This  was  in  the  city  of  Cleve- 
land. O.  To-day  considerably  more  than  one-third 
of  the  total  street  railway  mileage  of  the  United 
States  is  either  operated  by  electric  power,  or 
contracts  have  been  entered  into  for  the  substitu- 
tion of  an  electrical  equipment  for  that  now  in  use 
at  the  earliest  possible  moment." 

1886.— Mr.  F.  J.  Sprague  writes:  "The  develop- 
ment of  electric  traction  is  unequaled  in  the 
industrial  history  of  the  world.  In  1886  a  list  of 
twelve  or  thirteen  comprised  all  the  electric  roads 


HISTORICAL   NOTES.  19 

in  operation,  and  this  included  every  electrical  road 
in  the  world,  whether  operated  by  the  split  tube,  the 
side  rail,  the  traveling  trolley  carriage  on  an  over- 
head wire,  the  centre  rail,  or  by  a  conduit  or  storage 
.battery.  There  was  little  similarity  in  these  differ- 
'ent  plans,  but  they  all  served  to  show  that  elec- 
tricity, in  a  more  or  less  effective  way,  could  propel 
a  car." 

1887-88.— Mr.  Griffin  states:  "After  various  ex- 
periments, the  road  in  Allegheny  City  was  begun 
in  the  summer  of  1887.  The  cars  were  started 
during  the  winter  of  1887-88,  although  the  road 
was  not  formally  opened  to  traffic  until  February, 
1888.  Four  cars  were  furnished  to  this  road, 
which,  I  believe,  are  still  running.  On  the  lower 
end  of  the  road  was  a  mile  of  double  track 
conduit,  which  was  continued  by  an  overhead 
system  of  about  five  miles.  The  conduit  was  on  a 
long  grade  of  about  12  per  cent.  Over-running  trol- 
leys were  used  with  the  overhead  system.  The  Con- 
duit was  in  operation  for  two  years  or  more,  but 
has  now  been  taken  up  and  replaced  by  the  over- 
ihead  system. 

"It  was  not  until  1888  that  the  electric  railway 
became  a  practical  commercial  success.  I  fix  the 
date  at  1888,  as  it  was  in  that  year  that  Bentley  & 
Knight  opened  the  Allegheny  City  road  to  regular 
traffic;  that  the  Sprague  company  equipped  the 
Richmond  road,  and  the  Thomson-Houston  com- 
pany installed  the  Eckington  &  Soldiers'  Home  Road 
in  Washington.  It  was  in  1888  that  railway  officials 
began  to  realize  the  possibilities  of  this  new  active 
force,  that  the  great  West  End  system  of  Boston 


20        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS. 

adopted  electricity  to  the  exclusion  of  cable,  and  that 
orders  began  to  flow  in  upon  the  electric  companies 
for  street  car  motors  to  such  an  extent  as  to  soon 
make  the  manufacture  of  such  motors  one  of  the 
leading  branches  of  the  electric  industry. 

"Previous  to  1888  electric  motors  had  been  used 
on  several  roads.  Some  of  these  roads  were  doing 
well  and  have  been  prosperous  since;  but  to  the 
public  these  were  experiments  on  a  comparatively 
small  scale,  and  did  little  to  inspire  general  confi- 
dence. The  early  inventors  found  it  difficult  to 
secure  adequate  financial  backing ;  orders  were  few 
and  business  unprofitable.  The  stronger  companies, 
which  took  up  the  work  in  1888,  had  the  organiza- 
tion and  capital  necessary  to  achieve  success. 

"In  the  fall  of  1887  Frank  J.  Sprague  contracted 
for  the  electric  equipment  of  the  Union  Passenger 
Railway,  at  Richmond,  Ya.  This  was  an  important 
road  in  a  large  city,  and  Mr.  Sprague's  undertaking 
was  the  most  ambitious  effort  in  this  direction  up  to 
that  date.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Sprague 's  origi- 
nal intention  was  to  use  motors  with  but  one  reduc- 
tion, but  he  was  forced  to  abandon  this  idea,  as 
none  of  the  electrical  companies  of  that  date  were 
able  to  produce  single  reduction  motors.  The  motors 
used  at  first  were  too  light  for  the  work,  the  copper 
brushes  scored  the  commutators  badly,  and  were 
rapidly  consumed.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Sprague  per- 
severed despite  all  obstacles,  and  in  1888  the  road 
was  running  with  so  much  success  that  it  was  one 
of  the  object  lessons  which  induced  Henry  M.  Whit- 
ney and  his  brother  directors  of  the  West  End 
Street  Railway  of  Boston  to  adopt  electricity  as  a 


HISTORICAL  NOTES.  21 

motive  power  when  they  were  already  far  advanced 
in  the  plans  for  cabling  their  system." 

Regarding  this  road  in  Richmond,  Mr.  Pope  writes : 
"Lieut.  Frank  J.  Sprague  designed,  carried  out, 
and  completed  the  first  installation  of  electric  rail- 
roading on  a  large  scale  in  the  world,  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  in  1888.  Laboring  under  enormous  difficulties 
and  drawbacks,  Lieutenant  Sprague  succeeded,  by 
the  completion  and  operation  of  this  plant,  in  estab- 
lishing beyond  peradventure  the  future  supremacy 
of  the  electric  street  railway,  and  many  of  the  char- 
acteristic features  at  that  time  designed  and  intro- 
duced by  him  have  practically  become  standards  in 
the  modern  system,  and  are  found  in  nearly  every 
one  of  the  thousands  of  cars  now  in  service." 

Mr.  Sprague  himself  writes  regarding  this  road: 
"On  the  8th  of  February,  1888,  there  was  opened 
for  traffic,  under  the  Sprague  system,  a  road  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  which  presented  conditions  of 
length,  grade,  curves,  road-bed,  and  number  of  cars 
to  be  operated,  which,  if  successfully  overcome, 
would  mark  a  new  era  in  the  development  of  elec- 
trical railway  traction.  The  conditions,  while  not 
perhaps  now  seeming  remarkable,  were  then  con- 
sidered insurmountable,  not  onty  because  of  diffi- 
culties relating  to  street  car  service  itself,  but  also  the 
electrical  and  mechanical  ones.  The  length  was 
from  11  to  12  miles.  There  was  a  straight  grade 
of  10  per  cent. ;  there  were  grades  in  curves  of 
7  and  8  per  cent. ;  there  were  twenty-nine  curves, 
and  some  were  as  low  as  27  and  30  foot  radius. 
The  roadbed  was  of  an  execrable  character. 
Thirty  cars  had  to  be  operated  at  one  time  from 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


a  common  station,  and  some  of  them  four  miles 
away  from  the  station.  That  road  had  its  vicissi- 
tudes, but  its  victories  as  well.  Forty  cars  were 
operated,  and  no  less  than  twenty-two  simul- 
taneously at  one  end  of  the  line.  The  electrical  and 
mechanical  features,  hastily  designed  and  crudely 
constructed,  were  a  radical  departure  from  the  pre- 
vious work." 

A  paper  by  Mr.  Griffin  contains  the  following 
summary :  "  As  nearly  as  can  now  be  ascertained, 
the  following  electric  roads  were  actually  in  opera- 
tion on  January  1,  1888: 


ROADS. 

System. 

Location. 

1 

^2 

eg 

!*• 

Union  Passenger  Ry.  Co.  ..    . 

Daft  .    . 

Baltimore,  Md.  . 

9  no 

3 

Windsor  Electric  Ry. 

Van  Depoele  opp. 

Detroit,  Mich. 

1  95 

v, 

Appleton       " 

Appleton,  Wis 

o  50 

5 

Port  Huron    " 

« 

Port  Huron,  Mich... 

2.75 

4 

Highland  Park.  .. 

Fisher  

Detroit,  Mich..  .  . 

3  9,5 

4 

Scrantori  Suburban  road  
Los  Angeles  Electric  Ry.  Co.  . 

Van  Depoele  
Daft.  

Scran  ton,  Pa.  ..  
Los  Angeles,  Cal... 

5.00 
500 

12 

1 

Lima    Street    Ry.    and    Motor 
Power  Co                          

Van  Depoele. 

Lima,  Ohio. 

1  00 

fi 

Columbus    Consolidated    Street 
Ry.  
St.  Catherines  Street  Ry.  Co  
Seashore  Electric  Ry.  Co 
San  Diego  Street  Ry.  Co.  .  . 
E.  Harrisburg  Passenger  Ry.  Co. 

Short  .  .  . 
Van  Depoele.  . 
Daft  
Henry  
Sprague  

Columbus,  Ohio.  
St.  Catherines,  Ont. 
Asbury  Park,  N.  J  .  . 
San  Diego,  Cal  
Harrisburg,  Pa.. 

1.00 
T.OO 
4.00 
3.00 
4  50 

2 

12 
18 
9 
10 

"A  total  of  13  roads,  48.25  miles  of  track  and  95 
cars. 

"On  July  1,  1891,  there  were  354  roads  in  actual 
operation,  with  2,89*3  miles  of  track  equipped  elec- 
trically, and  4,513  motor  cars.  Such  has  been  the 
growth  of  three  and  a  half  years.  On  January  1, 


DEVELOPMENT  AND   STATISTICS.  23 

1889,  the  first  electric  car  was  started  in  Boston  with 
the  Sprague  system,  and  later  the  Thomson-Houston 
system  was  adopted." 


CHAPTER  II. 

DEVELOPMENT    AND  STATISTICS. 

The  development  of  electrical  railway  engineer- 
ing has  been  so  rapid,  that  it  is  perhaps  without  a 
parallel  in  any  other  industry.  It  was  only  a  few 
years  ago  that  an  electric  railway  was  still  consid- 
ered an  experiment,  while  at  the  present  time  horse- 
car  lines  and  cable  lines  are  not  only  being  rapidly 
replaced  by  electrical  roads,  but  it  is  not  likely  that 
many  new  horse-car  lines  will  be  started,  and  there 
are  many  cases  where  electric  roads  have  been  built 
where  horse-car  lines  would  hardly  have  been  con- 
sidered feasible. 

The  rapid  development  is  illustrated  very  well  by 
the  following  extract  from  a  paper  read  at  a  street 
railway  convention :  At  a  meeting  of  the  American 
Street  Railway  Association,  held  in  Washington  in 
1888,  almost  the  sole  subject  of  discussion  was  the 
question  of  improved  motive  power  for  street  rail- 
way service.  Every  manager  and  superintendent 
present  realized  that  the  demands  of  traffic  were 
rapidly  outgrowing  the  existing  methods,  and  many 
of  them  had  begun  to  look  forward  to  the  applica- 


24        RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

tion  of  electric  power  as  the  only  possible  solution 
of  the  problem.  As  one  delegate  after  another 
reported  his  experiences  and  observations  in  respect 
to  electric  traction,  a  member  who  had  listened  to 
it  all  with  evident  impatience,  arose  and  entered  his 
solemn  protest  against  all  the  new-fangled  talk 
about  electricity.  He  said  that  he  had  come  there 
upon  the  assumption  that  it  was  a  horse  railroad 
convention,  in  order  to  get  information  about  horses. 
He  wanted  to  know  how  to  shoe  them,  how  to  feed 
them,  and  how  to  work  them  to  the  best  advantage. 
And  as  he  continued  to  complain,  it  was  evident 
that  in  more  than  one  place  in  the  assemblage  his 
ideas  met  with  a  sympathetic  response.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1890,  the  same  association  held  its  annual  meet- 
ing at  Buffalo,  and,  in  his  opening  address,  the  presi- 
dent, Thomas  Lowry,  of  Minneapolis,  made  the  fol- 
lowing significant  remark:  "I  am  so  thoroughly 
convinced  that  electricity  is  the  coming  power  for 
street  railways  (except  on  very  heavy  grades,  where 
the  cable  is  best  suited),  and  that  it  will  prove  so 
effective  as  a  means  of  rapid  transit  for  cities,  that 
I  believe  that  this  is  the  last  convention  that  will 
ever  seriously  consider  horses  for  the  operation  of 
street  railways." 

The  development  of  the  street  railway  has  as 
much,  or  perhaps  more,  to  do  with  the  growth  and 
prosperity  of  towns  and  cities  than  any  other  one 
thing,  as  the  transportation  of  people  through  the 
city  is  most  intimately  connected  with  the  social 
and  business  life  of  the  people.  The  daily  loss  of 
time  to  the  people  of  any  city  where  horse-car  lines 
are  run  at  four  to  six  miles  an  hour,  when  compared 


DEVELOPMENT  AND  STATISTICS.  25 

with  electric  roads  running  at  six  to  twelve  hours, 
is  far  greater  than  one  would  at  first  suppose.  The 
effect  of  rapid  transit  on  the  growth  of  cities  is 
shown  very  well  in  the  following  extract  from  a 
paper  by  Mr.  Griffin,  from  which  will  be  seen  what 
an  important  effect  rapid  transit  has  on  the  increased 
value  of  property  in  and  about  towns  and  cities: 
"  Let  us  assume  that  a  man  can  allow  thirty  minutes 
morning  and  evening  for  his  car  ride,  paying  five 
cents  for  each  ride.  At  the  rate  of  six  miles  per 
hour,  fast  for  horses,  he  has  a  radius  of  three  miles 
and  an  area  of  28i  square  miles  within  which  to 
select  a  home.  At  the  rate  of  nine  miles  per  hour, 
slow  for  electricity,  he  has  a  radius  of  four  and  a 
half  miles,  and  an  area  of  63-£  square  miles  within 
which  to  select  a  home.  An  increase  of  only  three 
miles  per  hour  in  rapidity  of  transit  doubles  the 
available  residence  area  without  increasing  the 
time  or  expense  of  the  laborer  in  going  to  and  from 
his  work." 

In  dealing  with  the  problem  of  street  railways  for 
any  city,  one  should  not  consider  only  the  present 
population,  but  prepare  also  for  the  great  increase 
which  is  certain  to  come  in  most  of  our  American 
cities.  There  are  74  cities  in  the  United  States 
which  have  a  population  of  over  40,000.  In  these 
the  average  increase  of  population  during  the  last 
10  years  was  nearly  47  per  cent.  While  this  rate  of 
increase  may  not  continue  at  that*  high  figure,  the 
growth  is  however  reasonably  sure  to  be  very  great 
for  quite  a  number  of  years. 

Among  the  details  in  electric  railroad  engineer- 
ing, there  are  a  few  features  whose  development 


26         RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

were  especially  marked  during  the  past  year.  Chief 
among  these  was  the  reduction  in  the  gearing. 
Formerly,  a  double  reduction  gearing  and  a  high 
armature  speed  in  the  vicinity  of  1,000  revolutions 
were  almost  universally  used;  at  present  most  of 
the  motors  introduced  have  but  a  single  reduction^ 
the  armature  speed  having  been  reduced  to  about 
one-third,  while  the  gear  wheels  are  now  usually 
run  in  cases  filled  with  oil  or  grease,  which  has 
greatly  reduced  the  noise  and  the  wear  and  tear  of 
the  gearing.  An  attempt  has  also  been  made  to  do 
without  any  gearing  by  connecting  the  armature 
directly  to  the  car  axle,  forming  the  so-called  gear- 
less  motor.  Although  reports  appear  favorable,  it 
cannot  be  said  that  it  is  likely  to  replace  the  single 
reduction  motor.  It  is  claimed  that  the  necessary 
loss  in  efficiency  of  these  gearless  and  single  reduc- 
tion motors  over  a  double  reduction  is  not  as  great 
as  the  gain  in  having  less  gearing. 

From  reports  received  from  different  companies, 
it  appears  that  a  perceptible  improvement  has  been 
made  within  the  last  year  in  the  mortality  of  arma- 
tures, and  it  is  likely  that  a  still  further  improve- 
ment will  follow  the  introduction  of  the  single 
reduction  and  gearless  motor.  It  was  stated  that  at 
least  three  armatures  were  damaged  to  one  field 
coil  rheostat  or  switch  box.  The  general  adoption 
of  the  Gramme  armature  has  also  decreased  arma- 
ture repairs.  Iri  the  stations  the  tendency  has  been 
to  use  larger  dynamos,  large  and  more  economical 
compound  and  triple-expansion  engines,  and  a  bet- 
ter proportioning  of  the  plant  to  the  average  power 
required.  Another  improvement  has  been  made  in 


DEVELOPMENT   AND  STATISTICS.  2? 

the  substitution  of  long  cars  for  short  ones,  which 
is  accompanied  by  the  use  of  two  pivoted  trucks  to 
a  car  in  place  of  the  usual  rigid  truck  and  frame 
used  with  the  ordinary  16  foot  cars. 

In  comparing  the  relative  merits  of  cable  railways 
with  those  using  electrical  power,  it  seems  to  be  the 
almost. universal  opinion  that  the  former  are  better 
for  very  heavy  grades  and  where  extremely  heavy 
traffic  is  to  be  handled,  and  probably  also  where  dis- 
tances are  very  short. 

The  comparative  merits  of  the  two  systems  are 
shown  in  the  following  extracts  from  an  article  by 
Mr.  J.  C.  Henry,  in  which  he  states  that  arrange- 
ments had  been  completed  in  Boston  for  running 
cable  railways.  After  investigation,  the  company 
changed  their  plans  and  have  now  introduced  elec- 
tric power.  The  same  was  true  of  the  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Paul  railways,  while  in  Omaha  the  cable 
plant  had  already  been  introduced,  but  was  aban- 
doned in  favor  of  electricity.  He  adds :  "  To  build 
a  cable  road  on  Broadway  (New  York)  of  the  most 
approved  pattern  requires  excavation  4  feet  deep 
and  about  1*5  feet  wide  along  the  entire  street;  maiw 
gas  and  water  pipes  would  have  to  be  removed ;  the 
street,  in  all  probability,  would  be  torn  up  and  par- 
tially blocked  for  a  year,  as  the  work  can  only  be 
carried  on  during  the  building  season.  The  residents 
know  full  well  what  this  means — with  a  soil  so  pol- 
luted with  gas  that  a  single  paving  block  cannot  be 
removed  without  making  the  atmosphere  offensive. 
I  Cable  conduits  mean  two  open  sewers  the  entire 
| length  of  the  street.  They  are  certainly  objectiona- 
I  ble  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  Electric  cars  can 


28        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

be  stopped  much  quicker  than  cable  ones,  for  the 
reason  that  the  propelling  force  can  be  instantly 
reversed.  Cable  cars  necessarily  run  at  a  fixed 
rate  of  speed.  Electric  cars  can  be  operated  with 
the  greatest  certainty  at  any  desired  speed.  An 
accident  to  an  electric  car  means  it  must  stop ;  acci- 
dents to  grips  or  cables  sometimes  means  the  cars 
must  go  whether  the  road  is  clear  or  not.  Imagine 
a  heavy  cable  car  going  down  lower  Broadway  with 
a  snarl  caught  in  its  grip  and  no  way  of  stopping 
it  until  word  was  sent  to  the  power  house  to  shut 
down  the  engines.  Such  accidents  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  on  cable  roads." 

STATISTICS. 

In  connection  with  the  development  of  this  indus- 
try and  its  relative  importance  in  the  whole  street 
railway  business,  the  following  statistics,  compiled 
from  various  sources,  may  be  of  interest. 

It  is  only  six  years  ago  that  an  electric  street 
railway  was  put  in  actual  commercial  service  in  the 
United  States  for  the  first  time.  This  was  in  the 
city  of  Cleveland,  O.  To-day  considerably  more 
than  one-third  of  the  total  street  railway  mileage  of 
the  United  States  is  either  operated  by  electric 
power,  or  contracts  have  been  entered  into  for  the 
substitution  of  an  electric  equipment  for  that  now 
in  use  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Mr.  F.  L.  Pope  stated :  "  The  official  returns  show 
that  during  the  year  ending  September  30,  1889, 
the  110  street  railways  in  the  State  of  New  York 
carried  over  686,000,000  passengers,  or  100  times  the 


DEVELOPMENT   AND   STATISTICS.  29 

total  population.  In  New  York  city  alone  the  sur- 
face and  the  elevated  roads  carried  together  about 
400,000,000.  In  Boston  100,000,000  and  in  Philadel- 
phia 150,000,000  passengers  were  carried.  In  fact, 
statistics  indicate  that  the  street  railways  of  the 
United  States  carry  something  like  twice  as  many 
passengers  as  all  the  steam  roads,  and  moreover,  it 
has  also  been  found  that  the  number  of  passengers 
increases  from  year  to  year  in  a  much  greater  ratio 
than  the  population,  which  means,  not  only  that 
more  people  ride,  but  that  the  same  people  ride 
more  frequently  each  succeeding  year." 

Regarding  the  traffic  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
Mr.  Sprague  states :  "  The  total  annual  passenger 
traffic— that  is,  the  total  number  of  persons  carried 
in  this  city — has  increased  at  the  rate  of  over  140 
per  cent,  in  each  period  of  10  years  since  1866,  and 
is  now  something  over  325,000,000.  At  the  same 
rate  of  increase  it  would  amount  in  1890  to  over  500,- 
000,000  and  in  1900  to  1,225,000,000. 

Mr.  John  N.  Beckley  states:  "As  many  as  30,000 
street  cars,  horse,  cable  and  electric,  are  to-day 
(Sept.,  1891)  running  upon  the  8,000  miles  of  street 
railroads  in  this  country.  In  these  cars,  and  on 
these  tracks,  are  carried  as  many  as  3,000,000,000 
of  people  yearly,  or  50  times  the  entire  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States.  When  we  consider 
that  the  number  of  people  carried  by  all  of  the 
steam  railroad  companies  in  all  of  the  States  of 
this  Union  last  year  is  estimated  at  less  than 
500,000,000,  and  that  more  people  are  carried  on 
the  street  surface  railroads  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  a  year,  than  are  carried  by  all  the 


30         RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

steam  railroads  of  the  State  in  the  same  period,  we 
come  to  have  some  conception  of  the  immense 
importance  to  the  people  of  the  rapid,  efficient  and 
safe  service  of  street  cars  in  the  rapidly  growing 
cities  and  towns  of  this  wonderfully  prosperous 
country." 

The  new  census. bulletin  shows  that  in  four  of  the 
largest  American  cities  the  mileage  of  street  rail- 
ways of  all  kinds  was  nearly  doubled  between  the 
years  1880  and  1889,  the  figures  being  1,983  miles  in 
1880,  and  3,150  in  1889.  In  December,  1889,  476  cities 
and  towns  in  the  United  States  had  street  railways. 
There  is  now  scarcely  a  town  of  5,000  inhabitants 
without  one  or  more  street  railways. 

The  following  very  good  abstract  of  the  Eleventh 
United  States  Census  appeared  in  the  Street  Rail- 
way Journal  for  January,  1892 : 

"  The  development  of  street  railways  during  the 
decade  lying  between  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 
suses— a  development  both  as  to  facilities  and 
amount  of  business  done— may  certainly  be  counted 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  whole 
comprehensive  business  of  transportation.  Looking 
first  to  the  question  of  length,  it  is  found  that  in 
1880  there  were  2,050  miles  of  street  railways  in 
operation,  while  in  1890  this  number  had  risen  to 
5,783  miles,  an  increase  in  the  ten  years  of  3,733 
miles.  This  increase,  remarkable  as  it  is  for  the 
whole  ten  years,  is  still  more  remarkable  when  the 
decade  is  divided  into  two  periods  of  five  years  each, 
for  then  it  is  seen  that  the  most  astonishing  devel- 
opment has  been  during  the  last  half  of  the  ten 
years,  and  at  a  rate  before  unparalleled.  The  fig- 


DEVELOPMENT   AND    STATISTICS. 


31 


ures  show  that  during  the  first  five  years  the 
increase  of  mileage  was  888  miles,  while  during  the 
last  half  it  was  2,845  miles.  Looking  for  the  cause 
of  this  extraordinary  increase,  it  can  readily  be 
found  in  the  introduction  of  electric  roads.  Of  these 
roads,  which  on  June  30,  1890,  constituted  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  number  of  street  railways,  none  were 
in  operation  previous  to  the  year  1886.  In  that  year 
two  electric  railways  commenced  operations;  in 
1887  the  number  had  increased  to  six;  in  1888  to 
thirty;  and  in  1889  to  fifty-seven,  while  during  the 
first  six  months  of  1890  no  fewer  than  forty-nine  new 
electric  roads  were  reported.  The  development  of 
cable  roads  has  also  largely  assisted  in  this  increased 
mileage,  but  not  nearly  to  such  an  extent  as  the 
electric  railway,  while,  as  has  been  shown,  the  year 
1886  was  the  year  of  inception  of  the  electric  road, 
the  first  cable  road  began  to  run  in  1887.  The 
increase  by  years  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


YEAR|. 

Total  Length 
(Miles.) 

Increase. 

Miles. 

Per  cent. 

1880 

2,050.16 
2,150.09 
2,342.20 
2,506.14 
2,680.31 
2,938.29 
3,268.58 
3  890.22 
4.49&.49 
5.285.11 
6,783.47 

99.93 
192.11 
163.94 
174.17 
257.98 
330.29 
881.64 
609.27 
785.62 
498.36 
3,733.31 

4.87 
8.93 
7.00 
6.95 
9.93 
11.24 
19.02 
15.66 
17.46 
9.43 
182.10 

1881                 

1882 

1883                                                 

1884  

1885                                              .    . 

1886  

1S8T  

1SS8........  

1889                                

1890  (6  months) 

Ten  years,  1880-1890. 

"Looking  to  the  urban  locality  of  increase,  it  is 
found  that  the  most  remarkable  is  in  the  smaller 


32        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

cities,  a  fact  that  is  plainly  illustrated  in  the  sub- 
joined table: 


ITEMS. 

Length  of  Street  Railways 

Factor  of 
Increase. 

1890. 

1880. 

All  cities                              

5.783.4T 
3,205.59 
2.57T.88 

2,050.16 
1,584.16 
466.00 

2.82 
2.02 
5.53 

Cities  of  more  than  50,000  inhabitants- 
Cities  of  less  than  50,000  inhabitants.  .  . 

"  When  the  final  computations  were  made  it  was 
found  that  on  July  1,  1890,  the  street  railway  com- 
panies of  the  United  States  in  independent  operation 
numbered  789,  and  that  these,  repeating  the  pre- 
vious figures,  carried  on  their  operations  over  5,783 
miles  of  street  line,  or  over  a  total  track  length  of 
8,123  miles.  On  this  length  of  line  33,505  passenger 
cars  were  in  use ;  the  roads  and  equipment  cost,  all 
told,  $389,357,289,  they  gave  employment  to  70,764 
men,  and  carried  the  astonishing  total  of  2,023,- 
010,202  passengers.  A  good  idea  of  the  extent  of 
this  traffic  may  be  realized  when  it  is  stated  that  the 
street  railways  of  the  United  States  carried  last 
year  a  number  of  passengers  considerably  greater 
than  the  population  of  the  globe,  and  when  it  is  also 
stated  that  the  steam  railways  of  the  United  States 
with  all  their  157,759  miles  of  line  and  25,665  passen- 
gers cars  only  carried  during  the  same  year  472,- 
171,343  passengers,  or  1,550,838,859  passengers  less 
than  were  carried  by  the  street  railways." 

In  September,  1891,  the  same  journal  published  the 


DEVELOPMENT   AND   STATISTICS.  33 

following  summary,  which  is  probably  the  most  relia- 
ble one  that  has  been  published :  "  The  total  number 
of  miles  of  street  railways  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  11,029.  Of  these  5,442  are  operated  by 
animal  power,  3,000  by  electricity,  1,918  by  steam  and 
660  by  cable.  The  total  number  of  cars  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  is  36,517,  of  which  25,424  are  run 
by  animal  power,  6,732  by  electricity,  3,317  by  cable 
and  1,044  by  steam.  The  total  number  of  lines  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  is  1,003,  of  which  412 
use  electricity  and  54  cable.  The  number  of  horses 
is  88,114,  mules  12,002  and  steam  motors  200.  The 
diminution  of  the  number  of  horses  in  one  year  was 
28,681. 

Mr.  Sprague,  in  February,  1891,  published  the  fol- 
lowing summary :  "  The  number  of  electric  railways 
in  the  United  States  is  310;  number  of  motors, 
7,000;  total  horse-power,  175,000;  the  number  of  car 
miles  run  per  day,^400,000;  passengers  carried  annu- 
ally, 1,000,000,000;  the  investment  in  horse-car  lines, 
$58,000,000, ;  the  investment  in  electric  roads, 
$50,000,000;  and  that  in  cable  roads,  $49,000,000." 

Mr.  Watson,  in  October,  gave  the  investment  in 
electric  roads  as  $75,000,000.  Mr.  Griffin  gave  the 
number  of  miles  of  electric  railroads  as  2,893,  the 
number  of  cars  on  these  roads  4,513,  and  the  number 
of  electric  railroads  345.  By  way  of  comparison  it 
may  be  interesting  to  note  here  that  on  January  1, 
1888,  the  number  of  electric  railways  was  13,  the 
number  of  cars  95  and  the  number  of  miles  48.25. 

The  Street  Railway  Journal  published  in  October, 
1891,  the  number  of  miles  of  track  of  street  railways 
in  the  following  cities : 


34        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 


Philadelphia 510 

Chicago 452 

New  York.. 289 

Brooklyn ...         285 

Boston 283 

St.  Louis. 275 

Baltimore 207 

Sail  Francisco...  ...205 

Cleveland 192 

Cincinnati.. ..."..       181 

Pittsburgh. ...  let 


Kansas  City , ui 

New  Orleans 139 

Louisville ............!'....  i&j 

Buffalo. Ho 

Minneapolis ..."  '"101 

Los  Angeles  . .  99 

Detroit \    ... 94 

Birmingham  (Ala.)'  "  92 

St.  Paul 90 

Washington "85 


One  of  the  largest  electric  companies  in  this  coun- 
try published  at  the  close  of  the  year  a  list  of  the 
roads  built  by  them,  showing  a  total  of  181  roads 
using  2,769  motor  cars  and  having  2,264  miles  of 
track;  besides  this  they  had  23  roads  under  con- 
tract. 

At  the  beginning  of  1891  the  Thomson-Houston 
Company  published  the  following  list  of  electric 
railways,  showing  the  relative  distribution  among 
the  various  electrical  companies.  Thomson-Houston 
roads,  103;  Edison  (Sprague),  83;  United  States 
Traction,  21;  Van  Depoele,  8;  Rae,  8;  Short,  8; 
storage,  4;  Westinghouse,  3;  Bentley-Knight,  1; 
storage,  1;  total,  240. 

A  report  from  England  states  that  there  are  now 
29  miles  of  electric  lines  in  operation  in  that  coun- 
try, on  four  different  systems.  Among  the  heavy 
electric  lines  at  present  in  progress  there  are  the 
Central  London  Railway  (underground),  6  miles; 
and  the  Liverpool  overhead  railway,  6£  miles.  A 
permit  has  been  granted  for  the  overhead  trolley 
system  on  the  StaiTordshire  lines,  comprising  23 
miles  of  track. 


CONSTRUCTION   AND    OPERATION.  35 

CHAPTER  III. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION. 

The  following  opinions,  information  and  advice, 
extracted  and  compiled  from  the  papers  of  some  of 
the  best  writers  on  the  subject,  being  based  chiefly 
on  past  experience,  will  give  a  very  fair  idea  of  the 
present  practice  in  the  construction  and  operation 
of  electric  roads.  The  matter  is  divided  here  into 
the  following  classes :  Power  plant,  line,  track,  trac- 
tion power;  speeds,  grades,  loads,  etc.;  cars,  mis- 
cellaneous. 

POWER  PLANT. 

Mr.  C.  J.  Field  states:  "The  problem  requires 
much  more  careful  consideration  than  has  been 
given  steam  power  in  electric  lighting  generally 
in  the  past.  The  work  to  be  successfully  done 
by  the  steam  engine  in  the  generation  of  elec- 
tricity for  the  operation  of  railroads  is  of  the  severest 
kind,  and  can  be  compared  only  to  that  of  the 
engine  operating  rolling  mill  trains.  It  is  owing 
to  not  fully  appreciating  this  fact  that  we  hear 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  of  failures  of  steam 
plants  on  this  kind  of  work.  Electrical  manufac- 
turers are  assisting  the  solution  of  this  problem  by 
building  the  larger  generators  in  units  of  200  to 
400  or  500  horse-power.  What  we  want  in  the  gener- 
ating station  for  electricity  is  the  smallest  division 
of  units  consistent  with  the  safe  and  economical 
operation  of  the  station.  Each  unit  should  be 
entirely  independent  and  separate  from  all  other 
units,  thereby  increasing  the  reliability.  This  can- 
not be  obtained  in  a  safe  and  economical  way  by 


36        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

the  use  of  the  countershaft;  in  railway  work,  with 
large  generators,  we  can  see  no  excuse  at  the  pres- 
ent time  for  its  use.  Generators  should  be  belted 
directly  to  the  engines,  whether  Corliss  or  high 
speed,  or  else  coupled  directly  to  the  engine  shaft. 
With  a  Corliss  engine  of  500  horse-power,  operating 
at  80  or  90  turns,  with  a  flywheel  18  to  20  feet  in 
diameter,  we  can  belt  with  belt  centres  of,  say,  40 
feet  2  inches,  generators  of  several  different  com- 
mercial types;  this  gives  us  advantages  which  we 
have  heretofore  had  only  in  high  speed  engines  with 
direct  connection.  The  engines  should,  in  any 
event,  as  heretofore  stated,  be  extra  heavily  built 
for  the  work  to  be  done,  with  ample  flywheel 
capacity.  On  engines  of  this  size  and  speed  a  fly- 
wheel capacity  of  approximately  600,000  pounds  is 
about  right;  on  engines  operating  about  150  turns, 
say,  30,000  to  40,000  pounds.  Generators  on  this 
work  are  subjected  to  the  severest  and  most  exces- 
sive strain,  particularly  where  of  small  type,  but 
the  building  of  them  in  larger  units  is  going  to 
remove,  to  a  great  extent,  the  question  of  the  over- 
loading of  the  machine.  Eailway  machines  are( 
often  subjected  to  overloads  of  from  25  to  50  per 
cent.  In  general  these  are  only  momentary,  and  we' 
find  most  of  them  able  to  stand  up  to  the  work  to 
be  done. 

"  High  speed  engines  in  the  development  of  railway 
work  have  received  in  some  cases  a  setback,  owing 
to  the  engine  manufacturers  not  appreciating  fully 
the  conditions  and  necessity  of  the  work  under- 
taken. So  called  high  speed,  or  automatic  engines, 
pan  be  as  successfully  operated  on  this  class  of 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  37 

work  as  any  other,  if  they  are  especially  built  for  it. 
This  means  larger  parts,  bearings  of  more  ample 
size  and  length,  and  ample  flywheel  capacity.  On 
a  cross  compound  engine  of,  say,  300  horse-power, 
there  should  be  about  six  to  eight  tons  in  the  fly- 
wheels, the  bearings  seven  or  eight  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  15  or  18  inches  in  length.  In  the  case  of 
engines  built  in  this  manner  there  can  be  no  fault 
found  with  their  operation.  A  type  of  engine,  which 
we  believe  is  going  to  be  largely  used  on  this  class 
of  work,  as  well  as  lighting  work,  is  one  that  will 
come  in  between  the  high  speed  engine  and  the  Cor- 
liss and  which  will  combine  many  of  the  advan- 
tages of  both.  Such  an  engine  has  been  sought  for 
by  many  engineers,  and  has  been  attempted  by  a 
number  of  builders.  To-day,  however,  we  cannot 
find  it  on  the  commercial  market.  This  engine,  in 
units  of  500  horse-power,  would  run  at  a  rotative 
speed  of  about  140  or  150  revolutions,  and  with  a 
piston  speed  of  about  650  to  700. 

"The  question  which  has  troubled  most  engine 
men  in  regard  to  the  high  speed  engine  with  a 
single  valve,  covering  this  kind  of  practice,  has 
been  a  question  of  valves  and  clearances.  Beyond 
any  question,  when  it  comes  to  this  size,  we  have 
got  to  come  to  the  Corliss  practice  of  double  valve, 
thereby  reducing  the  clearances  and  bringing  it 
down  to  the  exte'nt  of  the  Corliss  practice.  The 
trouble  in  this  line  has  been  to  get  electric  manu- 
facturing companies  to  take  up  the  building  of  large 
multipolar  generators  adapted  for  direct  coupling 
at  a  speed  of  from  100  to  200  revolutions.  This  prob- 
lem was  developed  on  a  much  smaller  scale  in  this 


38        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

country,  for  marine  plants,  several  years  ago.  We 
find  that  in  Europe,  where  their  work  has  been 
more  special,  that  they  have  successfully  developed 
this  type  of  engine  and  generator,  and,  beyond  any 
question,  it  is  going  to  be  both  for  lighting  work 
and  for  railway  work  the  type  of  unit  for  central 
station  practice  in  the  future.  It  means,  where  the 
vertical  engine  is  used,  the  installation  of  the  steam 
and  electric  plant  in  the  space  formerly  used  for 
engines  alone.  This  means  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
building,  operation,  and  maintenance. 

"  We  append  a  few  interesting  figures  and  data 
which  the  writer  collected  for  presenting  to  street 
railway  companies,  in  order  to  give  them  some 
useful  information  in  this  respect.  The  figures  given 
in  the  table,  etc.,  are  not  ones  that  the  manufac- 
turer of  an  engine  would  tell  you  were  those  of  the 
best  economy  for  his  engine  or  plant,  but  they  are 
figures  which  will  be  appreciated  by  station  owners 
and  railway  companies  as  those  which  are  obtained 
in  every  day  commercial  tests. 

"  Thp  relative  commercial  economy  of  engines  and 
cost  are  as  follows : 


TYPE. 

Lbs.  of  coal 
per 
h.  p.  hour. 

Cost  per  h.  p., 
sizes 
over  100  h.  p.' 

High  speed  single                   .... 

4     to  5 

$11  to  $13 

3      to  3^ 

"         corn,  cond 

2V  to  2>£ 

14  to    16 

com.  triple.  . 

1%  to  2 

18  to    22 

Corliss  single  ., 

8#  to  4 

16  to    18 

"      compound  cond 

1%  to  2 

22  to    25 

"      triple. 

\%  to  \% 

27  to    30' 

*  This  is  based  on  an  evaporation  of  9  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  coal. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION. 


"There  are  four  classes  of  boilers: 

"1.  Horizontal  return  tubular,  whichis  the  most 
general  in  use,  and  costs  $9  to  $10  per  horse-power. 

"  2.  Vertical  tubular  (Corliss  or  Manning),  which  is 
a  vertical  tubular  boiler,  with  water  leg,  giving  an 
internal  fire-box,  economical  in  floor  space,  largely 
used  throughout  New  England.  Cost  $10  to  $12 
per  horse-power. 

"3.  Sectional  or  water  tube  boiler,  of  which  the 
Babcock  &  Wilcox  is  the  best  known,  especially 
adapted  for  higher  pressures  and  safety.  Cost  $17 
to  $19  per  horse-power. 

"4.  Scotch  type  of  marine  boiler— one  that  has  not 
been  used  to  any  extent  as  yet  in  station  work — but 
we  believe  it  will  be  as  an  offset  to  the  sectional 
type,  and  fulfilling  the  requirements  for  higher 
pressure  and  economy  of  space. 

"  The  capacity  of  engines  requisite  for  different 
generators  at  a  steam  pressure  of  100  pounds: 


GENER- 
ATOR. 

Engine. 

Watts. 

Horse- 
power. 

High  Speed. 

Corliss. 

Size. 

Speed. 

Wt.  2  fly- 
wheels. 

Size. 

Speed. 

Wt.  2  fly- 
wheels. 

50,000 
80,000 
150,000 
2,150.000 

75 
125 
225 
450 

12    X  12 
is    X  16 
18XX  18 

280 
225 
200 

7,000  Ibs. 
9,000  IbR. 
1  5,000  IbS. 

20X36 

24X48 

90 

80 

25,000  IDS. 
50,000  IbS. 

"The  cost  of  steam  plant  complete  is  about  $50  to 
$60  per  horse-power  for  high  speed,  and  $65  to  $75 
per  horse-power  for  Corliss. 

"  We  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  central  station 


40        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWA  VTS. 

owners  to  the  profit  to  be  made  from  the  furnishing 
of  power  in  street  railway  operation,  and  also  by 
the  combining  in   smaller  towns  of  the  street  rail- 
way companies  and  electric  light  companies.     The 
trouble  in  most  cases  in  central  stations  obtaining 
'contracts  for  power,  outside   of   small  roads,   has 
been  to  convince  the   railway  companies  that  the 
electric  light  station  can  economically  and  reliably 
furnish  this  power,  and  we  must  say  that  in  many 
cases  their  fears  are  well  founded.     Therefore,  it 
behooves  the  central  station   companies  to    place 
their  generating  plants  and  stations,  not  only  for 
their  own  business,  but  for  this  added  business,  in 
such  a  shape  as  to  remove  this  objection.     There  is 
no  reason  why  electric  light  stations  should  not  do 
a  large  and  profitable  business  in  this  line  as  well 
as  in  stationary  motor  work,  for  the  same  factor  is 
introduced  here,  and  the  same  reasons  why   they 
can   safely  and   profitably   furnish  this   power;   if 
they  have  a  station  properly  built,  and  large  enough 
to  add  this  power,  that  factor  is  established.  If  they 
have  a  proper  station  operating  force,  in  many  cases 
this  force  need  not  be  added  to  at  all.     As  to  what 
basis  this  work  can  be  probably  done  on,  we  hesi- 
tate to  state  figures,  except  in  specific  cases,  but 
will  try  to  give  a  general  idea  of  some  of  them.  For 
many  small  roads  power  contracts  have  been  taken 
at  so  much  per  day,  assuming  a  basis  of  100  to  125 
miles  operated.     Such  contracts  have  been  at  from 
$3  to  $5  per  car.     The  regular  basis,  in  accordance 
with  which  most  street  railway   companies  make 
their   contracts   and   desire    to    base  their  cost  of 
operation,  is  the  unit  of  car  mile  operated;   there- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  41 

fore,  most  contracts  are  on  this  basis.  This  comes 
down,  therefore,  to  a  basis  of  from  three  to  five 
cents  per  car  mile;  the  latter  figure  we  consider 
excessive,  and  one  which  would  be  only  made  by 
,  any  company  for  temporary  necessities.  We  know 
of  cases  where  the  matter  has  been  carefully  con- 
sidered and  the  plant  properly  installed  for  it,  where 
contracts  have  been  made  for  between  2-J-  and  2f 
cents  per  car  mile  for  16-foot  cars,  on  roads  with 
grades  not  exceeding  1-J-  to  2  per  cent.  In  this  case, 
and,  in  fact,  in  most  cases  where  the  closer  figures 
prevail,  the  railway  company  furnishes  the  gen- 
erators and  the  station  owner  furnishes  the  steam 
power  and  all  expenses  of  both  steam  and  electric 
power  due  to  ordinary  wear  and  tear.  A  profitable 
source  of  investment  has  been  found  in  the  more 
moderate  sized  towns  of,  say,  up  to  30,000  or  40,000 
inhabitants,  in  the  installation  of  combined  electric 
railway  and  lighting  stations ;  the  companies  either 
equipping  new  ones  or  purchasing  old  street  rail- 
way  systems  and  dilapidated  lighting  plants  run- 
ning on  an  unproductive  basis,  but  which  have 
a  good  franchise  and  field  for  business.  Such  com- 
panies have  proved  very  profitable,  as  the  combining 
of  the  operating  expenses  for  railway  and  lighting 
station  has  done  much  to  reduce  expenses,  and  in 
many  cases  one  manager  or  superintendent  has 
proved  sufficient  for  the  entire  system." 

Mr.  Beckley  advises  not  to  make  the  units  in  a 
power  station  too  large:  "Accidents  will  happen 
as  long  as  machinery  is  run,  and  an  accident 
to  a  500  horse-power  plant  is  serious,  while  you 
can  keep  your  cars  or  most  of  them  moving  if 


42        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

one  of  two  or  three  small  engines  breaks  down. 
The  same  rule,  of  course,  holds  as  to  the  genera- 
tors. Always  put  in  a  condensing  steam  plant. 
One  large  item  of  expense  of  operation  is  the 
coal  bill.  Cut  that  down  at  least  40  per  cent,  by 
erecting  condensing  engines.  The  first  cost  is,  of 
course,  a  little  more.  Locate  your  power  station  as 
near  as  may  be  in  the  centre  of  your  system,  but, 
above  all,  if  possible,  on  a  stream  large  enough  to 
furnish  all  the  water  you  require  for  the  boilers  and 
condensers.  City  water,  where  your  consumption 
runs  into  the  millions  of  gallons,  is  expensive." 

The  following  test  of  the  power  plant  of  the  Utica 
(N.  Y.)  Electrical  Belt  Line  Railway,  made  by 
Messrs.  Heilman  and  Clarke,  contains  some  figures 
and  results  which  may  be  of  interest  and  use,  as  the 
test  was  probably  carefully  made.  It  is  to  be  regret- 
t:jd  very  much  that  such  a  good  opportunity  was 
lost  to  note  other  data  also,  such  as  the  number  of 
cars,  etc.,  from  which  very  useful  results  could  have 
been  deduced.  As  it  is,  it  is  simply  a  boiler  and 
engine  test,  but  as  such,  it  is  quite  interesting.  This 
company  operates  26  miles  of  road.  Twenty  motor 
cars,  and  a  number  of  "trailers,"  used  when  traffic 
is  heavy,  comprise  the  rolling  stock  of  the  system. 
The  steam  part  of  the  plant  consists  of  three  200 
horse-power  Armington  &  Sims  cross  compound 
engines.  Only  two  of*  the  three  engines  are  con- 
stantly in  use  during  the  day,  the  third  being 
required  only  at  intervals,  when  heavy  loads  are 
suddenly  applied.  Its  use  was  not  required  at  any 
time  during  the  test.  The  boiler  room  contains  four 
horizontal  tubular  Curtis  boilers.  These  boilers  are 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.  43 

each  6  feet  diameter  of  shell,  16  feet  long,  and 
contain  eighty-eight  3i  inch  tubes.  Two  boilers 
only  are  used  at  a  time,  a  change  to  the  other 
set  being  made  when  cleaning  or  repairing  is  neces- 
sary. Two  independent  boiler  feed  pumps  and  one 
independent  Davidson  air  and  circulating  pump 
with  jet  condenser  are  provided.  A  National  feed 
water  heater  is  placer  between  the  boiler  and  feed 
supply,  while  a  separator  was  placed  on  the  main 
steam  pipe,  being  furnished  with  a  Curtis  regulator 
to  return  the  separator  water  to  the  boiler.  In  the 
generation  of  electricity,  six  Thomson-Houston 
dynamos  are  in  use,  two  being  driven  from  each 
engine.  The  instruments  used  for  measuring  currents 
and  voltage  are  also  made  by  the  same  company. 

Two  runs  were  made,  a  preliminary  run  on  May 
2d  of  five  hours'  duration,  and  the  main  test  on  the 
following  day  of  ten  hours,  readings  being  taken 
from  9  A.  M.  until  7  P.  M.  The  feed  water  was 
measured  by  means  of  two  calibrated  barrels,  one 
being  filled  while  the  other  was  emptying,  and  then 
reversing  the  process.  Although  the  quantity  of 
water  required  was  large,  by  the  use  of  this  method 
no  difficulty  was  experienced  in  keeping  the  supply 
equal  to  the  demand.  The  injection  water  for  the 
condenser  was  drawn  from  a  pond  near  by,  and 
after  passing  through  the  system  was  again  returned 
to  the  pond  through  a  sluice  of  rectangular  section. 
The  quantity  of  flow  was  obtained  by  placing  a  weir 
in  the  sluice,  and  the  height  of  flow  over  the  weir 
was  measured  by  a  hook  gauge.  The  weight  of 
coal  consumed  was  determined  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, a  Fairbanks  scale  being  placed  in  the  boiler 


44        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

room,  and  loads  of  200  pounds  each  were  dumped  in 
front  of  the  boiler  at  a  time.  The  ash-pits  were 
cleared  at  the  end  of  the  test,  and  the  ashes  placed 
in  a  barrow  and  weighed.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
quality  of  steam  at  the  engines,  a  calorimeter  was 
connected  to  the  pipe  leading  to  the  oiling  appara- 
tus, the  connection  being  made  close  to  the  engine 
throttle.  A  comparison  of  results  taken  from  boiler 
calorimeter  and  engine  calorimeter  shows  a  wide 
difference  in  moisture  in  steam.  Electrical  readings 
of  current  and  voltage  were  taken  every  five  min- 
utes during  the  test.  Below  are  tabulated  some  of 
the  more  important  results : 

Chai'acter  of  draught Natural 

Temperature  of  external  air 54.5  degrees  Fahr. 

Temperature  of  boiler-room 68.9  degrees 

Duration  of  test 10  hours 

Fuel  burued 7,000  pounds 

Total  ash 988       •• 

Moisture  in  100  pounds 8       " 

Weight  of  combustible 5,4f  2       " 

Efficiency  of  combustion 82.15  per  cent. 

Kind  of  coal— One-third  bituminous  slack  and  two-thirds  anthracite  culm 

Fuel  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour ll.<><>  poum's 

Combustible  per  square  foot  grate  per  hour 9.087       " 

Per  cent,  entrained  water  (boiler  cal.) 1.24  per  cent. 

Total  water  supplied 49,355.4  pounds 

.Dry  steam  per  hour  from  temperature  feed  water 4.875.1  pounds 

"      212  degrees 5,414.22 

"         "         »'    pound  of  coal... '. 6.90 

"        "        "    square  foot  of  grate 81.25 

"        "        "        "         "     "    heating  surface 1.67 

Thermal  units  per  hour...  ..  |JJoJJV<?!d   sjgg^Jg 

Horse-power  (34.5  pounds  water  evap.  per  one  horse-power  per  hour) 143 

Efficiency  of  boiler 73.29  per  cent. 

A  verage  steam  pressure  (absolute; 133.H  pounds 

Temperature  of  feed  water  to  heater 77-2  degrees 

"     "         "      from  heater 164.5  degrees 

Change  of  temperature  due  to  heater 87.3  degrees 

Revolutions  of  engine 2(il 

Per  cent,  variation  of  speed 1-1*  per  cent. 

A  verage  indicated  horse-power, 100.53 

Quality  of  steam  at  engine 3.88  per  cent.  \v t. 

Coal  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour 3.5  pounds 

Water  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour  (without  charging 

condenser) 21.72  pounds 

Average  electrical  horse-power 
Average  efficiency    =    •    =    81  Per  cellt- 

Average  indicator  horse-power 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.  45 

LINE. 

Regarding  the  usual  practice  on  various  overhead 
trolley  roads,  and  other  like  data,  some  very  inter- 
esting information  was  compiled  by  Mr.  Mansfield 
from  a  large  number  of  circulars  sent  out  by  him  to 
all  the  various  roads  in  operation,  asking  certain 
questions.  He  received  answers  from  137  roads, 
operating  1,546  miles  of  trolley  wire  and  1,657  motor 
cars.  Of  these  71  were  Thomson-Houston  roads, 
and  66  Edison  or  miscellaneous.  He  summarizes  the 
answers  as  follows : 

"The  trolley  wire:  Of  the  137  roads  PO  were  using 
copper  wire,  28  silicon  bronze  wire,  eight  were  using 
both,  and  two  were  using  phosphor  bronze. 

"Of  those  using  copper,  one  used  No.  000;  five  No. 
00;  three,  No.  1;  two,  No.  2;  one,  No.  5  hard  drawn 
copper ;  one  used  No.  0  soft  drawn  copper,  making 
13  in  all,  and  leaving  86  as  the  number  using  No.  0 
hard  drawn  copper  wire. 

"Of  the  28  using  silicon  bronze,  16  use  No.  4;  six, 
No.  2 ;  one,  No.  3 ;  and  the  five  remaining  roads  had 
combination,  of  two  or  more  sizes. 

"  Of  the  eight  using  both  silicon  bronze  and  hard 
drawn  copper,  six  prefer  the  latter. 

"Out  of  all  these  90  using  copper,  not  one  dissents, 
but  of  the  28  using  silicon  bronze  11  advise  copper. 
The  proof  is  conclusively  in  favor  of  hard  drawn 
copper  wire  and  of  the  larger  sizes,  No.  0  JB.  &:  S. 
seeming  to  be  the  standard. 

"  In  regard  to  the  wearing,  the  universal  testimony 
is  that  it  is  exceedingly  slight.  What  wearing  is 
observable  is  found  to  be  at  the  switches  or  on  the 
curves. 


46         RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

"  Serious  mistakes  have  been  made  in  the  past  by 
using  iron  flanged  trolley  wheels.  These  cut  the 
trolley  wire  badly.  Everything  should  be  done  to 
throw  all  the  wear  on  to  the  trolley  wheels.  These 
are  much  less  expensive  than  wire,  and  not  so  haz- 
ardous for  the  public  if  they  give  out. 

"From  my  own  information  and  knowledge,  I  can 
say  that  the  life  of  the  trolley  wire  is  much  longer 
than  I  originally  anticipated.  The  criterion  is  not 
the  years  that  it  has  been  up,  but  the  number  of 
times  the  trolley  wheels  have  passed  over  it.  It 
would  seem  that  with  ordinary  brass  trolley  wheels 
the  wear  was  about  .001  of  an  inch  to  the  passage  of 
65,000  cars.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  one  in  every  six 
minutes,  for  18  hours  per  day,  for  one  year.  With 
only  this  wear  the  life  of  the  wire  would  certainly 
be  20  years,  unless  through  some  process  of  crystal- 
lization it  became  more  brittle.  I  anticipate  but 
very  little  trouble  in  this  direction,  but  eternal  vigi- 
lance is  nevertheless  necessary.  Undoubtedly,  at 
curves  and  on  switches  the  wear  is  somewhat 
greater.  How  much  I  cannot  say. 

"  The  breaking  of  the  trolley  wire  has  been  rare, 
the  breaks  occurring  either  at  splices  or  switches, 
or  were  due  to  some  extraneous  cause,  such  as  fall- 
ing trees,  telephone  poles,  or  the  catching  of  the 
trolley  pole.  One  road  reports  a  break  as  due  to  the 
striking  of  the  trolley  wire  by  a  locomotive  smoke- 
stack. In  no  instance  was  any  casualty  reported, 
excepting  in  one  case,  where  a  mule  was  killed. 

"  Forty-one  roads  have  their  trolley  wires  divided 
into  sections,  and  consider  it  necessary  and  advi- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.  47 

sable.  Analysis  shows  that  these  roads  are  in  the 
largest  cities  or  towns. 

"As  to  the  relative  wear  of  the  sliding  and  the 
rolling  contact  trolley  I  believe  only  one  road  used 
a  sliding  contact  trolley,  and  I  think  that  has  been 
abandoned. 

"Span  Wires. — Regarding  span  wires,  forty-nine 
report  as  using  galvanized  iron  wire,  fifty-five  as 
using  galvanized  steel,  twenty  as  using  galvanized 
iron  cable,  and  one  as  using  copper  wire.  The  sizes 
range  from  No.  0  to  No.  14.  Comparatively  few 
breaks  are  reported  and  no  casualties. 

"  My  own  experience  has  led  me  to  adopt  No.  4  B. 
&  S.  soft  galvanized  iron  wire.  Whenever  a  long 
span  or  a  curve  is  to  be  constructed  I  have  had  two 
of  these  wires  twisted  together  into  a  cable. 

"  I  have  found  that  a  cable  made  of  small  wires  is 
hard  to  joint,  and  it  rusts  much  more  quickly. 
Avoid  joints,  and  use  a  ball  fastener  in  attaching 
span  wire  to  eyebolt.  On  the  whole,  however,  I 
have  concluded  that  iron  is  not  the  proper  material 
to  use  in  any  shape.  It  will  rust,  and  then  your 
structure  is  weak.  Pursuing  my  investigations  into 
this  matter  a  year  ago,  I  found  that  a  certain  special 
quality  of  silicon  bronzed  wire  was  the  best.  Tests 
of  this  wire,  in  comparison  to  iron,  showed  the  fol- 
lowing results : 

Breaking  Elongation  Twists 
Breaking       weight  in  in 

Dlam.      weight,     per  sq.  in.     six  feet,     six  feet. 

No.  1.  silicon  bronze 200         2.550  81,800         .8  per  ct.       37.4 

Galvanized  Iron .205         1,720  42,000  7.8  per  ct.       19 

"  I  am  aware  that  the  price  of  this  wire  is  five  or 
six  times  as  great  as  that  of  iron  wire,  but  as  the 


48         KECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

total  sum  in  either  case  per  mile  is  small,  I  strongly 
recommend  it.  Some  of  the  wire  has  been  in  service 
on  the  West  End  road  in  Boston  for  nearly  a  year. 
It  certainly  will  never  rust  out. 

"Guard  Wires. — Guard  wires  are  universally  con- 
demned, but  are  put  up  as  a  compulsory  protection 
from  existing  evils.  When  there  is  only  one  trolley 
wire  to  protect,  we  extend  two  light  wires,  about 
No.  14,  on  each  side  of  the  trolley  wire,  and  about 
18  inches  above  it  and  from  12  to  18  inches  to  each 
side.  We  suspend  the  longitudinal  wires  running 
parallel  with  the  trolley  wire  upon  an  additional 
span  wire.  The  additional  span  wire  is  insulated  as 
perfectly  as  possible  from  the  poles  and  from  the 
trolley  span  wire,  and  the  longitudinal  or  guard 
wires  proper  are  also  insulated  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  span  wire.  In  the  case  of  two  trolley 
wires,  the  general  practice,  so  far  as  1  have 
observed,  is  to  stretch  three  guard  wires,  two  of 
them  outside  the  two  trolley  wires  and  one  over  the 
center,  all  insulated  perfectly  from  the  other  wires. 
I  think  they  are  of  great  value.  I  think  it  neces- 
sary to  put  them  up.  Most  municipalities  require 
them  to  be  put  up,  and  as  long  as  you  keep  them 
perfectly  insulated  from  the  trolley  wires,  any 
extraneous  wire  which  may  fall  will  strike  them, 
instead  of  the  trolley  wire,  and  will  dangle  in  the 
street  as  a  dead  wire,  which  may  be  removed. 

"Feeders. — The  descriptions  of  the  various  feeder 
systems  are  so  vague  I  will  not  attempt  to  describe 
them.  The  average  distance  to  which  power  is 
transmitted  on  these  roads  is  about  three  miles.  The 
greatest  is  10,7  miles  on  the  Tacoma  &  Steilacoom 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.          49 

Railway,  Tacoma,  Wash.  There  are  many,  how- 
ever, operating  from  eight  to  ten  miles  from  the 
station. 

"There  are  two  general  methods  of  operating  the 
overhead  system.  One  is  by  having  a  continuous 
trolley  wire  wherever  the  track  runs,  and  the  second 
is  to  have  this  trolley  wire  divided  into  sections. 
For  towns  and  for  suburban  traffic  the  former  is 
almost,  invariably  adopted  and  carried  out.  Prac- 
tice would  seem  to  indicate  that  but  little  trouble 
is  experienced,  and  that  there  is  practically  no 
advantage  in  dividing  the  trolley  wire  into  sections, 
in  fact,  a  disadvantage,  since  you  lose  its  conductive 
capacity.  The  sectional  trolley  wire  surely  must  be 
used  for  all  city  work.  It  would  be  practically 
impossible  to  operate  in  Boston  without  proper 
divisions.  It  is,  however,  almost  impossible  to  origi- 
nally fix  all  of  these  divisions  once  for  all,  as  the 
topography  of  the  city,  the  grades,  location  of 
power  houses,  routes,  lines  of  traffic,  etc.,  all  have 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  is  bound  to  be  a 
gradual  growth  to  a  large  extent. 

"  Obviously  the  methods  of  feeding  the  trolley  wire 
vary  with  the  methods  of  arranging  the  trolley 
wire.  With  the  first  method  mentioned  (using  a 
continuous  trolley  wire)  the  feeders  are  either 
extended  from  the  station  the  entire  length  of  the 
line,  tapping  into  the  line  at  intervals,  or  else  sepa- 
rate feeders  are  run  out  from  the  station  to  certain 
predetermined  distances,  and  there  tapped  into  the 
trolley  wire.  When  more  than  one  feeder  wire  is 
needed,  in  either  case  a  repetition  of  the  scheme  is 
carried  out  from  feeder  wire  to  feeder  wire ;  there 


50        RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

is  little  to  choose  between  the  two  methods ;   both 
are  good. 

"With  the  second  method  (the  divided  trolley 
wire)  there  are  two  ways  of  accomplishing  the 
feeding.  First,  to  extend  a  feeder  the  entire 
length  of  the  line  and  tap  into  the  centre  of  each 
section  of  trolley  wire;  or  second,  to  extend 
the  feeder  the  entire  length  of  the  line  and  tap 
into  both  ends  of  each  section.  The  advantages 
of  the  former  are  that  in  time  of  trouble  a  man  has 
to  run  to  only  one  box  to  cut-out  a  section,  or  the 
whole  arrangement  could  be  made  automatic  by 
putting  a  fuse,  or  mechanical  circuit  breaker,  in  the 
box.  The  disadvantage  is  that  you  lose  the  value  of 
the  trolley  wire  as  a  conducting  medium,  which  in 
the  case  of  hard  drawn  copper  wire  is  considerable. 

"  In  the  latter  method  (tapping  into  the  section  at 
each  end)  obviously  a  man  has  to  go  to  each  end  of 
the  section  to  entirely  cut  out  that  section,  and  two 
sets  of  automatic  devices  would  have  to  be  arranged 
to  operate  in  case  of  trouble.  You  have,  however, 
the  advantage  of  utilizing  the  trolley  wire  as  a  con- 
.ductor. 

I  "  It  is  undeniably  true  that  the  question  of  feeder 
wires  is  one  of  great  importance  and  a  difficult  one 
to  always  economically  solve  for  all  conditions. 
The  point,  however,  which  the  railroad  corporations 
should  watch  above  all  others  is  that  they  have 
enough.  I  have  visited  many  roads  where  I  found 
that  the  larger  part  of  the  trouble  which  they  were 
complaining  of  lay  in  the  fact  that  they  did  not 
have  either  sufficient  trolley  wire  or  track  feeders. 
Railroad  officials  are  very  apt  to  object  to  feeders, 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.  51 

because  of,  first,  their  cost,  and  second,  the  placing 
of  so  many  wires  overhead,  which  is  liable  to  bring 
them  in  conflict  with  the  municipalities  and  the 
public.  The  question  of  having  an  insufficient  num- 
ber of  feeders  underground  for  the  track  is  one  which 
they  can  have  no  valid  or  reasonable  excuse  for. 

"  I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  for  large  cities 
all  feeders  should  be  placed  underground.  The 
cities  in  which  this  underground  work  has  -been 
adopted  are  Buffalo,  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul.  The 
question  is  one  almost  entirely  of  construction.  The 
cables  alone  will  cost  in  all  probability  less  than 
overhead  wires.  This  construction  work  can  be 
done  simultaneous!/  with  the  track  reconstruction, 
for  it  is  my  experience  that  whenever  a  large  city 
railway  adopts  electric  power  it  is  almost  absolutely 
necessary  to  rebuild  its  tracks.  Under  these  circum- 
stances 1  doubt  if  the  cost  of  the  conduits  or  ducts 
would  be  more  that  a  few  thousand  dollars  addi- 
tional per  mile. 

"Ground  Plates. — I  strongly  recommend  as  many 
ground  plates  as  it  is  possible  to  have,  not  only  at 
the  station,  but  also  along  the  line;  brooks,  bog 
land,  water  pipes,  everything  should  be  utilized  for 
this  ground  circuit  wherever  possible.  The  plates 
can  be  made  of  sheet  copper  or  iron,  preferably  the 
latter,  and  should  have  a  superficial  area  of  several 
hundred  square  feet.  The  wire  connecting  them  to 
the  tracks  should  be  of  sufficient  size  and  very 
solidly  attached  to  the  plate  and  the  rails.  The  con- 
tinuous supplementary  wire  should  in  all  instances 
be  employed,  and  the  rails  bonded  at  least  once.  In 


52        RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

no  instances  do  I  think  it  necessary  or  wise  to  place 
the  track  feeders  overhead. 

"Accessory  Devices. — In  regard  to  the  overhead 
devices  and  material  used,  1  can  only  urge  the 
advice  that  the  most  substantial  and  perfect  appara- 
tus that  can  be  secured  be  used.  Too  much  care  and 
attention  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  these  devices. 
It  does  not  pay  to  put  in  some  little  cheap  fifteen- 
cent  arrangement,  when  for  fifty  or  sixty  cents  a 
substantial,  reliable,  and  standard  device  can  be 
obtained.  It  is  also  well  to  consider  the  question 
of  uniformity  in  the  apparatus.  The  only  part  that 
is  liable  to  deterioration  is  the  insulating  material. 
Make  this,  therefore,  of  a  uniform  pattern,  and 
arrange  the  various  holders  for  its  reception." 

Regarding  overhead  line  construction,  Mr.  C.  J. 
Field  states:  "We  find  in  the  past  about  as  great  a 
development  in  overhead  and  line  construction  for 
electric  work  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  subject. 
While  formerly  this  was  one  of  the  greatest  sources 
of  unreliability  in  the  operation  of  the  plants,  to-day 
it  has  reached  a  very  practical  development.  In  the 
insulation  of  a  single  trolley  system,  with  one  side  of 
the  system  grounded,  we  have  the  most  severe  re- 
quirements that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  in  any  electric 
insulation,  in  that  any  grounding  on  the  other  side 
of  the  system  means  trouble  in  operation  of  the 
road.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of  double  and 
even  triple  insulation  into  our  line  material  to 
properly  protect  the  trolley  wire  from  grounding. 
Where  streets  are  wide  enough  to  spread  the  tracks 
to  six  feet,  and  six  feet  six  inches  within  the  near 
rails,  we  see  introduced  in  many  places  centre  iron 


CONSTRUCTION  ANI)  OPERATION.  53 

poles,  which  make  a  considerabty  stronger  style  of 
construction  than  cross  suspension.  There  are 
not  many  streets,  however,  where  street  cars  are  in 
operation  that  are  wide  enough,  or  where  the  city 
will  allow  the  spreading  of  the  tracks  to  this  dis- 
tance, and  in  closer  proximity  it  is  not  safe  to  oper- 
ate with  centre  poles." 

Mr.  Beckley  states :  "  The  overhead  wire  cannot 
be  too  well  put  up.  Cheap  devices  should  never  be 
used  because  they  are  cheap.  The  best  and  strongest 
are  none  too  good.  In  putting  up  the  feed  wire  and 
putting  in  the  ground  wire  return  to  the  generators, 
do  not  spare  copper.  I  am  convinced  that  much  that 
we  have  heard  about  the  inefficiency  of  generators 
and  motors  is  due  to  trying  to  get  too  great  a  quan- 
tity of  current  through  too  small  a  quantity  of  cop- 
per." 

Regarding  guard  wires,  Mr.  Bickford  states  that 
nothing  short  of  No.  10  should  be  used.  The  idea  is 
not  so  much  as  to  its  life  as  its  additional  strength 
in  supporting  fallen  wires,  especially  when  loaded 
with  sleet  in  winter.  On  a  portion  of  their  lines  they 
had  broken  telephone  and  telegraph  wires  on  the 
guard  wires  for  a  long  distance,  and  through  it  all 
they  operated  their  cars  without  interruption  by 
using  a  No.  10  steel  wire. 

Mr.  Littel  thinks  it  is  advisable  to  cut  up  the 
guard  wire  into  sections,  of  say  1,000  or  1,500  feet, 
and  put  in  circuit  breakers,  so  that  if  any  wire  does 
fall,  the  current  will  not  be  carried  a  great  distance. 
It  is  done  on  many  roads.  The  West  End  Road,  in 
Boston,  is  said  to  do  so  with  the  line  every  500  feet  j 
it  is  done  in  Buffalo  also. 


54        RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

According  to  the  experience  of  Mr.  Wason,  gal- 
vanized iron  span  wires  used  in  Cleveland  were 
rusted  so  badly  at  the  end  of  a  year  that  they  did 
not  feel  safe  to  tighten  them.  They  claim  to  have 
been  the  first  to  use  No.  4  soft  drawn  copper  for 
span  wires,  which  has  been  up  for  a  year  and  there 
has  been  no  perceptible  elongation  or  stretching. 

Regarding  the  trolley  wheel  and  poles,  Mr.  Ever- 
ett advocated  having  a  wheel  that  is  capable  of  fol- 
lowing the  wire  at  any  angle,  with  a  trolley  pole 
brittle  enough  to  break  should  it  become  entangled 
in  the  wires,  without  pulling  them  down,  and  a 
trolley  pole  rigid  enough  to  give  good,  steady  pres- 
sure on  trolley  wire,  and  so  constructed  that  when 
the  car  is  in  the  car  house  or  going  under  a  low 
bridge  the  pole  could  come  very  close  to  the  roof  of 
the  car,  also  flexible  enough  to  give  good  pressure 
when  the  trolley  has  to  be  21  or  22  feet  high  at  the 
railway  crossings. 

Among  the  articles  published  was  a  short  serial 
by  Mr.  Arthur  E.  Colgate,  on  "The  Construction 
and  Care  of  Electric  Railroads."  Being  eminently 
practical  in  character,  and  containing  many  useful 
hints,  we  have  reprinted  here  in  full  that  portion  1 
which  refers  to  the  line :  "  The  power  which  may  be 
said  to  be  lost  in  the  resistance  of  the  trolley  and 
feed  wires  is  easily  calculated  by  the  formula, 

C2  R 

"ivTTr  =  the  horse-power  lost. 

"The  resistance  of  a  copper  wire  is  very  nearly 
what  is  expressed  by  the  formula  32.37  times  its 
length  in  yards,  divided  by  the  square  of  its  diam- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  55 

eter  in  thousandths  of  an  inch;  and  for  other 
metals  the  resistance  may  be  found  in  the  same 
manner,  the  constant  being  changed  according  to 
the  relative  conductivity  compared  to  that  of  copper. 
For  example,  if  the  conductivity  is  half  that  of 
copper,  the  constant  should  be  multiplied  by  two. 
The  formula  is  based  on  the  resistance  of  a  copper 
wire  one  yard  long  and  of  one  circular  mil  sectional 
area,  and  as  the  conductivity  of  silicon  bronze  and 
most  other  trolley  wires  is  about  25  to  40  per  cent, 
higher  than  that  of  copper,  either  the  constant  or 
the  result  should  be  multiplied  by  1  plus  the  per 
cent,  increase  of  resistance. 

"Where  feed  wires  are  run  in  connection  with  the 
trolley  lines,  and  are  cross  connected  with  them  at 
short  distances,  the  joint  resistance  may  be  consid- 
ered as  that  of  one  conductor,  whose  resistance  is 
equal  to  the  product  of  the  several  resistances 
divided  by  their  sum,  and  the  loss  of  power  calcu- 
lated in  the  same  manner  as  it  would  be  in  one  wire. 
The  lo%s  permissible  on  a  line  depends  greatly  on 
the  grade  and  cost  of  power.  In  most  cases,  where 
coal  is  reasonable,  it  is  about  25  per  cent,  of  the 
total  amount  developed  by  the  generators,  and  on 
grades  it  should  be  much  less,  the  current  being 
supplied  at  these  points  by  a  separate  feed  wire, 
and  a  circuit  breaker  being  put  in  both  trolley  lines 
at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  hill,  if  it  is  a  short  one ; 
and  if  it  is  sufficiently  long  to  warrant  it,  the  circuit 
should  be  again  broken  in  the  centre  of  the  grade. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  protect  the  rest  of  the 
system,  should  any  car  motor  burn  out  or  the  line 
become  grounded  through  defective  car  wiring,  the 


56        RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

insulation  of  which  would  be  liable  to  give  way  and 
ground  the  line  when  subjected  to  heavy  service  on 
grades. 

"  The  weight  of  copper  wire  is  about  equal  to  the 
square  of  its  diameter  in  thousandths  of  an  inch 
multiplied  by  the  constant  (which  is  .016),  and  its 
tensile  strength  11  times  its  radius  in  thousandths 
of  an  inch  squared  multiplied  by  the  strength  of  a 
square  inch  of  the  material,  which,  in  the  case  of 
copper,  is  61,200  pounds,  and  in  the  case  of  iron  103,- 
000  pounds.  The  strength  of  cable  wire  is  about  10 
per  cent,  more  than  that  of  the  various  strands  of 
which  it  is  composed,  and  the  strength  of  rope  is 
expressed  by  the  circumference  squared  multiplied 
by  the  constant,  which  is  for  white  rope  1,140  and 
for  manila  810,  the  strength  of  tarred  ropes  being 
about  10  per  cent.  less.  The  weight  of  round  iron 
poles  is  2.65  times  the  mean  outside  diameter  multi- 
plied by  the  strength  of  the  pole. 

"Where  the  use  of  untried  apparatus  is  contem- 
plated, tests  as  to  the  relative  strength  and  dura- 
bility under  strain  should  be  made  by  means  of  a 
testing  machine.  Imagine  a  case  in  which  a  log  of 
wood  about  ten  feet  long  and  eight  inches  in  diam- 
eter is  held  in  an  upright  position  by  suitable 
means.  Projecting  pieces  of  wood  are  bolted  to  the 
log  by  inch  bolts  or  lag  screws,  there  being  two 
chains  of  half-inch  iron  links,  kept  from  sliding 
together  by  means  of  projecting  bolts.  A  small 
Fairbanks  dynamometer  is  used,  but,  if  not  pro- 
curable, may  be  replaced  by  a  steelyard.  There 
are  two  clamps,  one  of  which  is  attached  to  the 
dynamometer  and  the  other  to  the  turnb tickle  by 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  57 

means  of  a  swivel.  The  piece  of  apparatus  to  be 
tested,  having  had  short  pieces  of  suitable  trolley 
wire  attached  to  it  in  the  regular  manner,  is  held  by 
means  of  these  and  the  clamps,  and  the  strain 
applied  by  the  turnbuckle,  the  amount  of  which 
should  be  read  on  the  dial  of  the  dynamo'meter. 
Should  a  steelyard  be  used,  it  will  be  much  more 
convenient  if  a  small  spring  balance  is  substituted 
for  the  weight  or  counterbalance. 


FIG.  2.— TESTING  A  POLE. 

"  If  it  is  thought  necessary  or  desirable  to  test  any 
of  the  various  makes  of  poles,  it  may  be  done  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  in  which  strong  pieces  of  wood  are 
firmly  set  in  the  ground,  and  a  stout  piece  of  hard 
wood  is  placed  behind  the  pole  to  distribute  the 
strain  evenly  along  that  part  which  is  afterward  set 
in  the  ground.  The  strain  is  applied  and  read  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  previous  case,  by  means  of 
the  dynamometer  and  turnbuckle.  In  applying  this 
test  to  side  and  pull-off  poles,  the  rope  or  chain  by 
which  the  strain  is  brought  to  bear  should  be 
attached  to  the  insulated  cap  at  the  top,  which  is 
usually  the  weakest  part  of  the  pole.  This  has 
proved  so  weak  in  many  instances  that  constructors 
are  discarding  it,  and  are  attaching  the  span  and 


58        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


pull-off  wires  to  circuit  breakers,  which  are  attached 
to  the  pole  a  few  inches  from  the  top  by  a  short 
pendant  and  turnbuckle,  or  by  means  of  an  insu- 
lated turnbuckle.  These  methods,  while  not  pre- 
senting so  symmetrical  an  appearance,  have  a  most 
decided  advantage  of  superior  strength  and  dura- 
bility. 


FIG.  3.— LOCATING  A  CDRVE. 

"In  centre  construction  a  pole  should  be  set  as 
near  each  end  of  the  curve  as  possible  without 
involving  danger  of  being  struck  by  the  overhang- 
ing ends  of  the  cars.  The  precise  point  for  the  loca- 
tion may  be  found  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  line  with 
the  distances  corresponding  to  the  length  of  the 
wheel  base  and  distance  from  the  rear  axle  to  the 
front  dashboard  of  the  car  marked  on  it  is  held 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION. 


59 


between  three  men.  The  men  who  represent  the 
wheel  base,  1  and  2,  stand  on  the  inside  rail,  the 
other  standing  in  line  with  them  at  the  point  repre- 
senting the  forward  dasher.  A  short  stick  is  held  by 
him  at  right  angles  to  the  line.  The  curve  is  fol- 
lowed in  this  manner,  and  the  location  should  be 
fixed  at  a  point  where  the  stick  clears  a  line  drawn 


FIG.  4.— LOCATING  A  PULL-OFF  POLE. 

parallel  to  the  rails  between  the  tracks  by  a  little 
more  than  half  the  diameter  of  the  pole. 

"Fig.  4  shows  the  correct  location  of  a  pull-off  pole, 
which  is  found  by  an  equilateral  triangle  B,  having 
for  its  base  a  line  drawn  between  the  last  two  poles, 
located  at  the  ends  of  the  curve  A  A,  the  apex  of 
which  is  the  pull-off  pole  C.  If  it  is  not  convenient 
to  set  it  here,  it  may  be  moved  farther  back,  or  a 
short  distance  to  the  right  or  left,  as  circumstances 


60        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

may  require,  or  the  pull-offs  may  be  brought 
together  at  this  point  and  made  up  into  an  iron 
ring  with  a  pendant  running  to  the  pole,  or  two 
poles  may  be  placed  at  the  points  E  and  F,  and  the 
i  ring  secured  by  pendants  running  from  them.  In 
the  case  of  side  pole  and  span  wire,  construction 
poles  should  be  placed  at  the  points  represented  and 
a  span  wire  run  between  them,  as  shown  by  the  dot- 
ted lines,  the  object  being  to  support  the  curve  and 


FIG.  5.— MODEL  FOR  POLE  LOCATION. 

keep  slack  from  running  back  should  the  pull-off 
pole  bend  to  any  extent,  or  should  the  wire  part. 
The  ears  by  which  the  trolley  is  fastened  to  these 
spans  should  in  all  cases  be  soldered  very  firmly 
with  a  solder  composed  of  equal  parts  of  tin  and 
lead  soldering,  salts  being  used  as  a  flux. 

"  Poles  are  often  located  by  means  of  pins  driven 
into  a  card  on  to  which  a  sketch  of  the  curve  and 
line  has  been  pasted,  the  line  being  in  this  case 


CONSTRUCTION   AND    OPERATION. 


61 


represented  by  a  thread  which  is  pulled  out  over 
the  track  in  the  same  manner  as  the  trolley  line 
should  be.  In  the  diagram,  Fig.  5,  A  is  an  elastic 
band  fastened  to  the  board  by  a  nail  B,  C  C  being 
the  pins  which  represent  the  poles  at  each  end  of 
the  curve,  around  which  the  thread  is  run  and 
anchored  to  the  pin  E.  F  F  F  are  pins  driven  into 
the  board  on  the  curve  line  at  a  distance  of  eight  or 


FIG.  6.— PULL-OVER  FOR  DOUBLE  CURVE. 

ten  feet  apart,  on  the  scale  to  which  the  sketch  is 
drawn,  which  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  length  of  the 
pull-offs,  and  which  are  attached  to  the  pull-off  pole 
H,  on  the  curb  line.  After  the  line  is  pulled  out 
against  the  pins  they  are  removed,  and  if  the  thread 
follows  the  curve  the  location  of  the  poles  is  correct. 
"When  the'-e  is  a  switch  in  the  line,  where  it 
branches  in  the  shape  of  a  Y,  the  curves  may  be 
pulled  from  each  other  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  6,  in 


62         RECENT  .PROGRESS   IN    ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

which  A  is  the  switch,  B  is  a  pull-off  pole,  which  is 
located  in  line  with  the  switch  A,  and  C  C  C  are  the 
last  poles  on  the  straight  line.  The  switch  A  should 
be  situated  about  four  feet  beyond  the  switch  in  the 
track.  Turn-out  switches  should  be  located  in  the 
same  manner. 
"  This  chapter  would  not  be  by  any  means  complete 

A 


FIG.  7.— SHORT'S  ARRANGEMENT  OF  PULL-OVERS. 

without  speaking  of  the  most  excellent  manner  of 
curve  building  devised  by  Mr.  Sidney  S.  Short,  of 
the  Short  Electric  Company.  Two  poles  A,  Fig.  7, 
are  set  on  opposite  curves,  and  a  heavy  span  wire 
run  between  them,  and  insulated  from  the  poles  by 
circuit  breakers.  Short  pull-off s  are  then  run  to  the 
trolley  wire  from  the  span  wire. 
"  All  poles  for  electric  railroad  lines  should  be  set 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  63 

either  in  concrete  made  of  Portland  or  Rosendale 
cement,  sand  and  broken  stone;  or,  in  case  of 
bracket  or  centre  pole  work,  they  may  be  set  in 
cobble-stones  and  earth.  The  earth  in  the  latter 


FIG.  8.— WAGON  FOR  POLE  ERKCTION. 

case  should  be  well  tamped  by  means  of  wooden 
or  iron  tamps. 

"  One  of  the  best  ways  of  setting  the  poles,  after 
the  holes  are  dug,  is  by  the  use  of  a  tower  wagon, 
which  is  made  according  to  Fig.  8.  To  the  body  of  a 
wagon  are  fastened  four  uprights,  the  tops  of  which 


64         RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

should  reach  19  feet  above  the  ground ;  and  these  are 
stiffened  by  four  braces,  which  are  made  of  hem- 
lock about  six  inches  wide  and  two  inches  thick. 

"  Across  the  two  front  uprights  run  boards,  which 
form  a  ladder,  and  this  enables  a  man  to  ascend  to 
the  platform,  which  is  about  7  feet  X  4  feet  6 
inches,  and  has  a  slight  bulwark  around  it  one  foot 
high  and  lockers  on  each  side  for  tools.  At  12  feet 
from  the  ground  is  the  arm,  which  is  securely 
fastened  at  two  points.  A  winch  is  fastened  to  the 
body  of  the  wagon,  a  little  back  of  the  centre.  A 
rope  leading  from  this  is  led  through  a  snatch  block, 
and  is  fastened  to  the  pole  a  little  above  the  centre 
of  gravity. 

"  By  this  means  a  pole  may  be  set  in  a  very  short 
time  by  three  men.  After  the  pole  is  in  the  proper 
position  and  the  proper  rake  given  it  by  means  of  a 
spirit  level,  which  should  have  a  taper  on  one  edge, 
it  is  held  in  place  by  pike  poles  and  the  cement 
packed  in  around  it.  This  concrete  should  be  made 
in  a  large  dump  cart,  which  can  be  driven  from  one 
hole  to  the  other,  and  the  cement  shoveled  directly 
into  the  holes,  and  well  tamped  in  around  the  poles. 

"About  a  week  after  the  poles  are  set  the  arms 
should  be  attached;  and  this  may  be  done  by 
means  of  the  tower  wagon  or  by  men  using  ladders, 
depending  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  arm  used. 

"  The  ladder  should  be  five  feet  longer  than  the  pole 
and  should  be  lashed  against  it  top  and  bottom.  A 
snatch  block  is  attached  to  the  upper  rung  and  a 
rope  run  through  it,  by  means  of  which  the  arm  is 
raised,  one  man  being  at  the  top  of  the  pole  to  guide 
it  into  place  and  fasten  it  there  with  bolts.  All  pins, 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  65 

etc.,  should  be  attached  to  the  arm  before  it  is  put 
in  place. 

"Erection  of  Feed  and  Trolley  Wires.— After  the 
poles  are  set  and  properly  guyed,  the  feed  and  trol- 
ley wires  should  be  run,  starting  from  circuit 
breakers  which  are  firmly  anchored  to  heavy  poles, 
either  on  the  side  or  between  the  tracks.  These 
poles  should  be  set  very  firmly  in  concrete  to  a  depth 
of  seven  feet  and  have  a  rake  of  about  ten  inches. 
The  feed  wire  should  be  spliced  by  means  of 
soldered  Western  Union  joints  into  lengths  of  about 
a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  each,  and  wound  on 
a  large  reel  firmly  mounted  on  a  flat  truck,  suffi- 
ciently large  to  allow  two  or  three  men  room  to 
work  comfortably.  The  end  of  the  coil  is  attached 
to  the  circuit  breaker  and  about  60  feet  run  out, 
which  is  kept  clear  of  the  ground  by  passing  it  over 
a  drum  mounted  on  the  tower  used  in  setting  poles. 
This  follows  the  truck  bearing  the  reel.  The  wire 
is  kept  sufficiently  ,  tight  to  prevent  much  sag 
between  the  poles  by  a  wooden  bar  which  is  held 
against  the  side  of  the  reel  by  two  men.  After  a 
certain  amount,  depending  on  the  size  of  wire,  has 
been  run  out,  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  keep  it 
sufficiently  tight  to  keep  the  slack  clear  of  the 
ground.  At  this  point  a  wire  head  guy  should  be 
run  from  the  top  of  one  pole  to  within  ten  feet  of 
the  base  of  the  next.  The  feed  is  pulled  tight  by 
means  of  blocks  and  fall  attached  to  the  top  of  the 
pole  and  to  the  wire  by  a  small  chain  or  rope  strap, 
which  should  be  braided  around  it.  After  being 
pulled  tight  the  wire  is  made  fast  to  a  pole  back  of 


66         RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

the  blocks,  which  has  been  previously  guyed  in  the 
same  manner,  and  the  blocks  and  fall  removed. 

"  The  line  should  then  be  tied  in  or  fastened  to  the 
insulators  with  short  tie  pieces  of  wire  by  linemen, 
who  go  back  over  the  line  for  this  purpose,  the 
tower  and  reel  wagon  keeping  right  ahead,  paying 
out  and  hanging  up  wire.  At  the  n^xt  pull  up  one 
man  stays  back  and  unfastens  the  strap  which 
holds  the  line  after  it  is  pulled  sufficient^  tight  to 
prevent  slack  from  running  back  into  it  through  the 
ties. 

"Just  before  turning  curves  the  line  should  be 
pulled  tight  and  secured  by  straps,  and  should  be 
again  pulled  up  at  the  other  end  of  the  curve,  but 
not  quite  to  such  a  degree  of  tightness  as  the  rest  of 
the  line.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  drop  one  feeder 
it  should  be  secured  to  a  circuit  breaker  which  is 
fastened  to  a  pole  by  means  of  a  pendant  and  a 
turnbuckle  or  by  an  insulated  turnbuckle.  The 
largest  feed  wires  are  run  before  the  smaller  ones 
and  on  the  pins  nearest  to  the  poles. 

"  If  it  is  thought  necessary  to  run  guard  wires  they 
should  be  made  of  steel  not  smaller  than  No.  5 
B.  &  S.  gauge,  which  in  cities  should  be  painted 
with  waterproof  paint  or  Nubian  enamel,  as  the 
zinc  coating  is  soon  destroyed  by  the  chemical 
action  due  to  the  smoke  in  the  atmosphere.  They 
are  run  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  feed 
wires,  about  two  feet  above  the  trolley  lines,  and 
pulled  very  tight.  These  guard  wires  should  have 
circuit  breakers  in  them  at  regular  distances  of 
about  one  thousand  feet  or  less,  which  may  have  a 


CONSTRUCTION    AND   OPERATION. 


67 


lead  wire  or. jumper  around  them  if  the  wire  is  to 
be  used  for  signaling  purposes. 

"In  the  case  of  side  pole  construction,  where  the 
feed  wires  are  run  on  arms  attached  to  the  span 


FIG.  9.— METHOD  OF  CROSSING  LINE  WITH  FEED  WIRES. 

poles,  the  feed  wires  where  they  cross  should  be 
raised  above  the  trolley  and  guard  lines  by  means 
of  raised  arms  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  9, 
which  is  clamped  to  the  pole  by  means  of  iron 


H8        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

bands  and  is  kept  from  turning  by  set  screws.  The 
span  wires,  with  the  hangers  attached,  should  now 
be  put  in  place,  after  the  completion  of  the  feed 
lines,  and  the  trolley  wire  run  in  a  similar  manner, 
the  only  difference  being  on  the  curves  and  joints 
and  in  its  being  hung  under  the  arms  or  span  wires 
by  means  of  hooks  made  of  heavy  steel  wire.  There 
is  also  a  great  difference  in  the  manner  of  making 
splices,  which  is  by  the  use  of  splicing  ears  that  are 
put  in  the  line  after  it  is  pulled  up  tight,  the  wire 
being  held  temporarily  by  clamps  and  turnbuckles, 


FIG.  10.— METHOD  OF  HOLDING  LINE  PKEPAKATOIIY  TO  MAKING  SPLICE. 

as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  These  ears  should  be  attached 
to  the  arms'  or  span  wires  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  regular  supporting  ears.  The  practice  of  making 
Western  Union  or  sleeve  joints,  in  these  lines  is,  I 
hope,  a  relic  of  the  past.  After  a  reasonable  amount 
of  wire,  say  a  mile  or  so,  is  run  out,  or  a  curve  is 
reached,  the  wire  is  drawn  up  sufficiently  tight  to 
allow  about  eight  or  nine  inches  sag  in  summer  and, 
about  five  inches  in  winter,  depending  largely  on' 
the  size  and  strength  of  the  wire  used,  and  it  is  held 
in  place  by  a  head  guy  clamped  to  it  running  to  the 
base  of  a  pole.  The  turnbuckle  at  the  joint  is  then 
drawn  up  about  a  foot,  and  the  exact  location  of  the 
splicing  ear  marked  on  the  wire  with  chalk  or  a 
burnisher,  but  under  no  circumstances  should  it  be 
scratched  there  with  a  file.  The  surplus  ends  are 
then  cut  pflf  with  a  bolt  cutter,  which  is,  by  the 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.  Gl» 

way,  the  only  thing  which  will  cut  trolley  and 
cabled  wires  and  make  a  good  job  of  it.  The  splic- 
ing ear  is  then  put  in  position  and  the  wire  fastened 
to  it  in  the  regular  way  according  to  its  kind,  when 
the  turnbuckles  are  slacked  off  and  the  clamp 
removed.  Circuit  breakers  are  put  into  a  line  in  an 
exactly  similar  manner. 

"  After  the  splicing  ears  and  circuit  breakers  are 
in  place,  the  section  may  be  fastened  to  the  support- 
ing insulators  either  by  soldered  ears  or  good  me- 
chanical clips.  If  the  former  are  used  they  should 
be  soldered  by  means  of  a  copper  bolt,  and  not  by 
either  pouring  the  solder  on  to  them  or  by  the  use 
of  blow  lamps,  the  former  being  weak  and  the  lat- 
ter injuring  the  wire.  And  under  all  circumstances 
soldering  salts  should  be  used  instead  of  acid  or 
resin.  On  curves  the  trolley  wire  is  pulled  out  over 
the  track  by  loosely  attached  temporary  pull-off 
wires  running  to  the  poles,  their  location  having 
been  ascertained,  as  described  in  previous  pages. 
Their  length  is  just  sufficient  to  allow  the  trol- 
ley to  curve  about  one  foot  to  the  inside  of  the 
centre  of  the  track,  its  exact  location  being  deter- 
mined by  the  radius  of  the  curve  and  the  nature  of 
the  trolley  stand,  together  with  the  judgment  of  the 
constructor.  The  outside  wire  is  first  run,  and  the 
inside  one  pulled  from  it  by  a  continuation  of  the 
pull-off  wires. 

"Line  switches  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 
admit  of  their  being  moved  if  necessary,  and  should 
be  without  moving  parts.  All  movable  apparatus 
intended  to  be  operated  by  the  trolleys  passing 
under  it  and  by  gravity  is  liable  to  become  clogged 


?0        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

with  grease  or  ice,  and  is.  as  a  usual  thing,  either 
weak  or  bulky.  Where  these  switches  are  to  be 
put  in,  the  line  is  temporarily  held  by  means  of 
clamps  and  turnbuckles,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  until 
after  it  is  pulled  up  and  the  curves  are  in  position. 
Then  the  switch  is  put  in  in  very  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  splicing  ears  and  circuit  breakers, 


FIG.  11.— TEMPORARY  MANNER  OF  HOLDING  CURVE. 

enough  of  the  end  of  the  wire  being  left  to  allow 
the  switch  to  be  moved  should  the  occasion  require. 
"  Before  the  insulators  are  placed  in  position  they 
should  be  painted  with  either  P.  &  B.  paint  or  with 
Bonnell's  enamel,  which  will  lessen  to  a  great 
extent  the  leakage  due  to  moisture.  These  insula- 
tors should  also  be  of  sufficient  size  to  obviate  any 
possibility  of  an  arc  being  formed  by  the  trolley 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  71 

running  off  and  striking  both  line  wire  and  hanger. 
The  permanent  pull-off  for  the  curves  should  be 
made  of  cable  wire,  and  should  not  be  fastened  to 
the  ear  bodies  permanently  until  the  road  has  been 
in  operation  for  some  time,  as  they  are  liable  to 
stretch  some  one  or  two  inches. 

"  If  the  trolley  runs  off  at  any  switch  it  should  be 
chalked  and  the  car  run  under  it  a  few  times,  when 
it  will  be  seen  just  where  it  runs  off,  and  the  switch 
moved  forward  or  backward  will  remedy  the  trouble 
if  the  switch  is  properly  constructed. 

"  At  every  tenth  pole  short  pieces  of  No.  6  B.  &  S. 
wire  should  be  run  from  the  feed  wires  to  the  trol- 
leys and  there  fastened  by  regular  feed  ears,  and 
the  trolleys  should  also  be  cross  connected  at  short 
intervals. 

"Broken  or  otherwise  defective  insulators  may  be 
found  where  iron  poles  are  used  by  a  wire  leading 
from  the  base  of  the  pole  to  the  rail,  a  flash  due  to 
the  resistance  of  the  current  indicating  a  ground. 
Slight  ones  give  a  very  small  shock,  but  a  man 
standing  on  the  rail  holding  the  wire  will  receive  a 
very  decided  shock. 

"  A  mixture  of  black  lead  and  vaseline  rubbed  on 
the  trolley  wire  will  prevent  the  clinging  of  sleet, 
and  will  not  clog  the  trolleys  unless  too  thickly 
applied.  Breaks  in  the  line  may  be  temporarily 
repaired  by  means  of  a  short  section  of  wire 
clamped  to  the  trolley  and  pulled  up  with  a  turn- 
buckle  ;  after  which  the  permanent  repairs  may  be 
made  by  splicing  in  a  section  of  wire  with  regular 
splicing  ears." 


72        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

TRACK. 

In  an  article  by  Mr.  C.  J.  Field,  he  states:  "The 
track  of  street  railway  companies  before  the  intro- 
duction of  electricity  was  more  behind  the  times 
than  any  other  part  of  their  equipment.  The  old 
flat  rail  is  antiquated  and  antedated,  and  in  a  few 
years  its  use  will  be  obsolete.  The  necessities  of 
electric  railway  traction — in  fact,  of  any  traction- 
have  impressed  upon  the  street  railway  companies 
in  their  equipments  the  requirement  of  a  good  road- 
bed for  the  successful  operation  of  a  road,  and  we 
find  this  part  of  the  problem  receiving  as  much  at- 
tention as  any  with  companies  who  appreciate  fully 
the  work  before  them.  The  general  construction 
to-day  is  girder  rails  of  from  60  to  80  pounds  per 
yard,  placed  on  chairs  where  block  paving  is  in  use, 
with  ties  2-J  to  3  feet  between  centres.  We  find  in 
some  cases  even  90  and  100  pound  rails  used,  bat  we 
believe  in  more  moderate  weight  for  the  rails  and 
the  ties  placed  closer  on  centres.  We  believe  this 
has  been  the  general  experience  in  railway  work. 
Such  a  style  of  construction  costs  from  $9,000  to 
$10,000  per  mile.  In  suburban  roads,  on  streets 
where  there  is  no  paving,  we  find  the  T  rail  being 
used ;  the  roadbed  can  be  properly  constructed  on 
this  basis  with  45  to  50  pound  rail,  for  $6,000  to 
$6,500  per  mile,  the  rail  being  spiked  directly  to  the 
ties." 

Mr.  Beckley  states :  "  Those  who  propose  to  substi- 
tute electric  for  horse  power  will  make  a  great  blun- 
der if  they  attempt  to  put  in  cheap  construction  or 
material.  We  who  have  gone  into  this  matter  have 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  73 

learned  that  the  track  upon  which  it  is  proposed  to 
operate  electric  cars  should  be  of  girder  or  T-rail,  of 
not  less  weight  than  50  pounds  to  the  yard  of  T, 
and  62  pounds  to  the  yard  of  girder  rail.  The  weak- 
est place  in  the  track  is,  of  course,  at  the  joint,  and 
no  cheap  contrivance  at  that  point  should  on  any 
account  be  permitted.  With  girder  or  T-rail  con- 
struction it  is,  it  seems  to  me,  a  useless  expense  to 
lay  a  continuous  supplementary  wire.  The  rails 
should,  of  course,  be  well  and  heavily  bonded  at  the 
joints  with  iron,  not  copper,  wire,  and  cross  connec- 
tion of  rails  be  frequently  made.  Where  tram  rail 
track  is  used  I  think  a  continuous  wire  should  be 
laid  and  connected  with  the  bond  wires." 

In  the  article  by  Mr.  Colgate  before  referred  to 
the  following  instructions  were  given  regarding  the 
bonding  of  the  track: 

"In  the  successful  operation  of  all  single  trolley 
electric  railroads  it  is  necessary  to  provide  suitable 
means  for  maintaining  a  complete  metallic  circuit, 
which  is  generally  accomplished  by  connecting  one 
pole  of  the  generator  (in  most  cases  the  positive 
one)  to  the  rail  or  supplementary  return  wire,  the 
other  pole  being  connected  to  the  trolley  wire. 

"Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  operate  roads 
on  what  is  known  as  a  grounded  circuit;  that  is 
to  say,  by  using  the  earth  for  the  return  circuit. 
This  practice,  although  advocated  by  some— one 
man  even  going  so  far  as  to  apply  for  patents  on 
the  details  of  this  form  of  construction — is,  in  the 
writer's  opinion,  poor  policy,  except  as  a  makeshift. 
In  case  of  necessity,  it  may  be  done  by  driving  bars 
into  the  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tracks,  to  which 


74        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

the  rails  are  connected  by  wires,  or  by  connecting 
the  rails  to  the  remains  of  some  defunct  tin  roof, 
which  should  be  buried  in  the  moist  earth. 

"  The  wire  leading  from  the  dynamo  should  be  con- 
nected to  a  similar  ground  plate,  which  ought  to  be 
about  20  feet  square.  This  was  done  in  the  case  of 
the  Essex  Electric  Road  in  Peabody,  Mass.,  and 
has  proved  quite  successful .  I  understand  that  this 
method  of  grounding  is  to  be  done  away  with  on 
this  road  and  bonding  substituted  at  an  early  date. 

"  One  of  the  first  methods  of  connecting  the  rails 
was  to  drive  copper  wedges  between  their  ends,  but 
this  did  not  give  satisfaction,  owing  to  the  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  rails  The  method  which 
came  into  use  was  that  of  connecting  each  rail  to  the 
rail  next  it  by  means  of  a  copper  or  iron  bond,  which 
should  be  of  sufficient  sectional  area  to  carry  the 
current  with  almost  no  loss,  No.  6  copper  wire  being 
the  size  in  general  use.  At  every  fifth  rail  the  two 
sides  of  the  track  should  be  united  by  means  of  a 
No.  0  copper  wire,  and  in  the  case  of  a  double-track 
road  both  tracks  should  be  connected  at  about  every 
tenth  rail  by  a  similar  bond.  The  object  of  cross- 
connecting  the  tracks  and  rails  is  to  insure  a  con- 
tinuous circuit  should  any  of  the  bonds  become 
broken  by  the  settling  of  the  pavement  or  of  the 
rails. 

"  In  case  of  the  track  being  of  the  ordinary  stringer 
type,  and  already  laid,  it  is  best  drilled  by  means  of 
an  upright  drill  clamped  to  the  rail  and  operated  by 
hand.  The  drill  I  have  in  mind  is  very  strong  and 
light,  and  when  operated  by  two  ordinary  laborers 
it  will  bore  a  3-inch  hole  in  f-inch  iron  in  about  four 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  75 

minutes,  including  the  time  to  set  it  in  position.  The 
best  mode  of  operating  is  to  raise  the  end  of  the  rail 
and  insert  under  it  a  block  of  wood  about  12  X 
3X3  inches  to  keep  it  in  place.  On  no  account 
should  the  men  be  allowed  to  use  stones  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  are  liable  to  slip  out  at  the  most 
inopportune  moments,  and  the  spring  of  the  rails  is 
quite  sufficient  to  amputate  a  finger  or  two  with 
surprising  quickness.  After  the  end  of  the  rail  is 
secured  in  position  the  drill  is  fastened  to  the  rail  by 
means  of  a  clamp  and  set  screw.  I  may  say  here 
that  a  spanner  should  always  be  used  in  connection 
with  this  rail,  as  a  monkey  wrench  soon  becomes  so 
clogged  with  sand  as  to  render  it  useless.  A  hole  is 
then  drilled  through  the  thinnest  part  of  the  rail 
about  three  inches  from  the  fishplate. 

"  The  driller  then  proceeds  to  drill  all  the  rails  in 
rotation.  At  every  fifth  joint  he  drills  a  hole  two 
feet  from  the  fishplate  for  the  reception  of  the  long 
bonds.  A  corresponding  hole  is  also  drilled  in  the 
opposite  rail.  At  every  tenth  rail,  if  it  be  a  double 
track  road,  an  extra  hole  is  drilled  in  the  inside  rail 
for  the  other  cross  bond.  I  consider  it  the  wiser 
plan  to  have  enough  drillers  to  enable  them  to  keep 
a  distance  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  gang,  for 
various  reasons,  the  most  prominent  one  being  that 
the  drills  suffer  less  from  being  clogged  with  dirt. 

"  After  being  drilled  the  holes  should  be  counter- 
sunk to  the  depth  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  by 
means  of  a  countersink  and  carpenter's  brace.  One 
of  the  best  tools  for  this  purpose  is  made  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  12.  Such  countersinks  can  be  made 
by  any  blacksmith,  and  are  easily  sharpened.  It  is 


76        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

necessary  to  keep  them  very  sharp,  as  they  are  abso- 
lutely useless  if  dull. 

"After  the  holes  are  countersunk  the  paving 
between  rails  at  the  joints  is  removed  for  the  space 
of  about  two  feet,  and  an  excavation  made  just 
wide  snough  to  enable  a  man  to  dig  out  the  soil  to 
a  sufficient  depth  to  expose  the  ties.  The  men 
engaged  in  this  work  labor  to  the  best  advantage  in 
sets  of  three,  two  loosening  the  paving,  while  the 


FIG.  12. 

third  removes  it.  At  the  extra  holes  for  the  cross 
bonds  a  small  trench  should  be  dug,  uniting  them. 
"On  the  completion  of  the  digging  the  bonds  are 
riveted  in  place.  This  should  be  done  by  men  work- 
ing in  pairs,  one  man  raising  the  rail,  while  the 
other  does  the  riveting.  The  end  of  the  rail  is  raised 
by  means  of  a  bar,  and  a  block  of  iron  is  placed 
under  it  parallel  with  the  stringer.  This  block 
should  be  about  8xl|X3  inches.  The  end  of  the 
rivet  is  then  riveted  in  the  hole,  and  is  forced  home 
by  allowing  the  rail'to  spring  down  on  it.  Some- 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  77 

times  it  is  necessary  to  pound  on  the  rail  with  the 
head  of  the  bar,  which  will  help  very  materially  in 
forcing  the  rivet  into  place.  The  riveter  must  exer- 
cise care  and  see  that  his  helper  does  not  cut  the 
wire  off  between  the  web  of  the  rail  and  the  rivet- 
ing plate.  While  the  plate  is  still  in  this  position 
the  projecting  end  of  the  rivet  is  cut  off  flush  with 
the  rail,  and  a  head  formed  which  fills  up  the  coun- 
tersinking. The  end  of  the  rail  is  then  raised  again, 
the  block  removed  and  the  stringer  cut  away  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  one-half  inch  clearance  between 
it  and  the  head  of  the  rivet,  which  gives  the  rail  a 
chance  for  free  movement  without  danger  of  sever- 
ing the  bond  between  the  stringer  and  the  web  of 
the  rail. 

"The  rivet  in  the  other  end  of  the  bond  is  fastened 
to  the  adjoining  rail  in  the  same  manner.  After  this 
the  bond  is  bent  down  alongside  the  stringer,  held 
in  place  by  a  tinned  iron  staple,  and  the  paving 
replaced.  The  cross  bonds  should  be  buried  deep 
enough  to  be  out  of  danger  of  being  broken  by  the 
settling  of  the  pavement.  All  bonds  should  be  of 
sufficient  length  to  allow  a  slight  movement  of  the 
rail  caused  by  expansion,  loose  spikes,  the  passing 
of  cars  and  other  vehicles.  The  writer  prefers  those 
bonds  which  are  made  of  one  piece  of  copper,  as 
they  are  not  so  liable  to  cause  trouble  by  the  rivet  be- 
coming loosened  from  the  side.  There  is  another  ex- 
cellent bond  made  by  having  a  hole  in  the  rivet  near 
the -head  just  large  enough  to  contain  the  wire,  which 
is  then  upset  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  it  to  jam, 
making  it  impossible  for  it  to  pull  out.  (See  Fig.  13). 
If  the  bonds  are  made  by  twisting  the  wire  around 


78         RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

the  rivet  under  the  head  and  then  soldering  it,  it  is 
good  policy  to  examine  them  and  see  that  the 
rivets  do  not  taper  near  the  head  under  the  wire ; 
also  make  sure  that  the  wire  is  up  close  to  the  head 
of  the  rivet.  If  they  do  not  comply  with  these 
requirements  they  should  be  rejected  as  worthless, 
for  they  will  cause  endless  trouble  by  the  wire 
breaking  loose.  The  rivets  should  be  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  thickness  of  the 
rail  for  which  they  are  intended,  the  projecting  end 
being  cut  off  as  has  been  described,  and  should  be 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  larger  than  the  holes 
in  the  rail. 

"Figs.  14  and  15  show  about  the  correct  shape  of 
the  rivet.  Attaching  bond  wires  to  the  track  by  a  hole 
drilled  partly  through  the  rail,  into  which  the  wire 
is  inserted  and  held  in  place  by  a  dowel  pin,  has 
rather  fallen  into  disrepute  owing  to  the  wire  break- 
ing off  close  to  the  rail  when  the  paving  is  replaced. 
But  there  is  no  reason  why  this  arrangement  should 
not  be  used  on  suburban  roads  where  there  is  no 
paving  and  the  road  is  used  not  for  a  highway, 
though  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  wire  when 
inserting  the  pin. 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  70 

"All  methods  of  bonding  without  the  use  of  a  sup- 
plementary return  wire  are  generally  avoided  for 
various  reasons,  the  most  prominent  one  being  that 
the  breaking  of  a  number  of  bonds  caused  by  the 
removal  of  rails  will  produce  trouble.  But  in  this 
case  a  short  length  of  wire  might  be  run  tempora- 
rily to  take  the  place  of  the  rails  which  have  been 
taken  up  during  repairs. 

"Frogs,  switches,  and  other  castings  should  be 
connected  in  the  same  manner  as  other  rails,  but 
should  be  wired  by  a  small  gang  of  men  after  the 
rails  are  all  done. 

"These  castings  should  be  drilled  from  the  top 
down,  though  much  difficulty  is  sometimes  experi- 
enced owing  to  the  presence  of  sand  and  slag.  The 
latter  usually  is  found  low  down,  and  is  so  hard 
that  it  will  turn  the  edge  of  the  hardest  drill.  The 
best  way  to  drill  these  difficult  castings  is  to  use  a 
Morse  twist  drill  which  has  been  tempered  glass 
hard,  which  should  be  turned  and  fed  very  slowly, 
being  kept  moist  with  turpentine,  to  which  a  little 
spirits  of  camphor  has  been  added.  After  drilling 
all  but  one-fourth  of  an  inch  take  out  the  drill  and 
put  in  a  punch,  which  may  be  struck  with  a  sledge. 
This  treatment  will  cause  the  lower  coating  of  slag 
to  give  way.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  strike  hard 
enough  to  fracture  the  casting.  In  crossing  steam 
and  other  railroad  tracks,  their  rails  at  the  point  of 
crossing  should  also  be  connected  with  the  track, 
or,  better,  with  the  return  wire. 

"  The  most  approved  manner  of  bonding  track  is  by 
means  of  a  return  supplementary  wire,  which 
should  be  one  No.  0,  or  two  of  No.  3,  tinned  copper. 


80        RECENT    PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

After  the  rails  are  drilled  and  countersunk  in  the 
manner  just  described,  the  paving  should  be 
removed  at  the  joints  in  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
track  between  the  rails.  The  openings  are  deepened 
enough  to  expose  the  ties,  or  very  nearly  to  that 
depth.  A  ditch  is  then  dug  next  to  the  right  hand 
stringer  on  the  inside  of  the  track,  to  a  sufficient 
deplh  to  enable  the  supplementary  wire  to  be  easily 
stapled  to  the  ties.  The  bonds  are  now  riveted  in 
place,every  alternate  bond  on  the  left  hand  side  being 
long  enough  to  reach  across  the  intervening  space 
to  the  ditch  opposite,  where  it  is  afterward  con- 
nected to  the  supplementary  wire;  adjoining  left 
hand  bonds  are  connected,  and  the  joint  soldered. 
The  right  hand  bonds  should  be  about  six  inches 
longer  than  the  height  of  the  stringer,  which  will 
allow  two  wraps  around  the  supplementary  wire, 
two  bonds  being  fastened  in  each  rail.  After  the 
bonds  are  riveted  in  place  the  supplementary  wire 
is  run  out  along  the  ditch.  This  wire  should  be  No. 
0  tinned  copper  (and  should  be  purchased  in  coils 
not  larger  than  about  150  pounds  each),  to  which 
the  bonds  are  connected  by  wrapping  the  ends 
around  the  wire.  Gas  tongs  are  far  better  than 
pliers  for  this  work,  on  account  of  the  latter  getting 
clogged  with  sand.  The  joints  are  now  all  soldered 
by  pouring  hot  solder  into  them,  holding  a  ladle 
underneath  to  catch  the  surplus.  The  solder  must 
be  very  hot  for  this  work.  A  large  charcoal  furnace 
is  about  the  best  means  of  keeping  it  at  the  proper 
temperature.  All  gasoline  apparatus  the  writer  has 
ever  seen  proved  a  failure  on  account  of  getting 
clogged  with  dirt,  After  the  joints  are  soldered  the 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION. 


81 


wire  is  fastened  down  in  place  by  means  of  tinned 
staples,  one  being  driven  into  every  third  tie. 

"  In  bonding  track  while  being  laid  the  holes  are 
drilled  and  the  rivets  fastened  in  before  the  rails 
are  finally  in  place.  A  small  hand  punch  may  be 
advantageously  used  for  this  purpose. 

"  After  the  rails  are  placed  in  position  and  the  ties 
tamped  two  No.  3  wires  are  run  out  to  the  stringers 
and  the  ends  of  the  bonds  fastened  to  them.  These 
two  wires  are  connected  every  200  feet  by  means  of 


FIG.  16. 

short  pieces  of  wire  of  the  same  size.  The  object  in 
using  two  wires  in  this  case  is  a  saving  of  copper  in 
the  bonds,  which  is  quite  an  item  in  a  long  road. 

"Girder  and  T  rails  should  be  drilled  through  the 
side,  but  in  the  case  of  rails  already  laid  this  is  not 
practicable  except  in  the  latter  case,  where  a 
ratchet  drill  may  be  used.  The  rivets  are  held  in 
place  while  being  headed  by  means  of  a  crowbar 
and  block  of  iron  about  6X6x3  inches,  and  is 
used  as  shown  in  Fig.  16. 

"  In  bonding  Johnstown  rails  already  in  use,  the 


82        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

drill  is  clamped  to  the  rail  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  17,  the 
soil  having  previously  been  dug  away  to  a  sufficient 
depth  to  allow  the  drill  to  be  easily  set  in  position. 
To  rivet  bonds  in  this  type  of  rail  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  bar  with  a  flat  turned  up  end,  similar  to  a 
claw  bar  used  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  spikes. 
This  is  used  in  connection  with  the  riveting  block 


Eitt.WbTtJ.tn 

FIG.  17. 

as  shown  in  Fig.  18.  One  man  holds  the  rivet  in 
place  while  the  head  is  being  formed  by  the  other. 
"The  rivets  of  broken  bonds  should  be  removed 
with  a  punch  to  which  a  wooden  handle  is  attached. 
Extra  long  bonds  may  be  made  by  twisting  the 
wire  around  the  rivet  close  up  to  the  head  and  there 
securing  it  by  soldering.  Tinned  rivets  are  the  best 
for  this  purpose,  but  if  it  is  impossible  to  procure 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  83 

them  already  tinned  this  may  be  done  by  heating 
them  red  hot,  plunging  them  into  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  sal  ammoniac  to  which  a  little  muriatic  acid 
has  been  added,  and  then  dipping  them  while  still 
wet  into  melted  solder.  The  workman  should  take 
great  care  during  this  process,  as  the  solder  is 
almost  sure  to  spatter. 

"Castings  through  which  it  is  impossible  to  drill 
may  be  connected  to  the  rest  of  the  circuit  by  plac- 


jSltc.  Wortet.NX 
FIG.  18. 

ing  a  copper  plate  under  them  which  is  connected 
to  the  supplementary  wire,  and  spiking  them  down 
with  extra  long  spikes,  or  by  bolts,  to  insure  good 
contact.  Girder  rails  are  sometimes  grounded  in  a 
similar  manner  by  means  of  a  sheet  of  copper 
between  the  rail  and  chair." 

TRACTION    POWER. 

There  appears  to  be  no  small  difference  of  opinion 
regarding  the  co-efficient  of  traction,  that  is,  the 


84        RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

number  of  pounds  pull  per  ton  which  is  necessary  to 
move  a  car  on  a  level.  These  differences  are  due 
not  so  much  to  inaccurate  measurements,  but  prob- 
ably chiefly  to  the  fact  that  slight  differences  in 
the  track,  roadbed,  imperceptible  grades,  and  the 
amount  of  dirt,  affect  the  results  quite  materially. 
Mr.  Crosby  found  by  means  of  a  dynamometer  that 
it  required  about  25  pounds  per  tori  for  a  car  weigh- 
ing about  12,000  pounds  on  an  average  street  car 
track  with  an  ordinary  flat  rail.  Mr.  Mailloux  found 
that  the  traction  per  ton  in  some  cases  reached  over 
30  pounds  and  as  high  as  40.  He  believes  that  the 
traction  per  ton  increases  with  the  weight  of  the 
car,  stating  that  it  might  be  20  to  25  pounds  per  ton 
for  3-ton  cars,  while  for  7  or  8  ton  cars  it  might 
probably  be  30  or  35  pounds  per  ton.  This  view 
might  explain  the  lower  figure  found  for  the  trac- 
tion of  horse  cars,  as  they  are  of  so  much  smaller 
weight.  Mr.  Prescott  reports  a  test  made  with  a 
dynamometer  on  a  car  pulled  by  men,  in  which  he 
found  the  co-efficient  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of 
30  pounds  to  the  ton  for  a  6-ton  car.  Some  tests 
made  in  Paris  on  the  Decauville  narrow  gauge  road 
were  reported  to  give  as  low  as  5^  pounds  per  ton, 
which  is  extremely  low.  A  test  made  by  Tresca  on 
an  electric  line  between  Paris  and  Versailles  gave 
27  pounds.  A  set  of  numerous  careful  experiments 
made  by  Mr.  Hubel  on  horse  car  lines  in  Hamburg 
gave  33  pounds.  Mr.  C.  J.  Field  states :  "  A  fair  basis 
for  the  power,  on  general  conditions,  for  16  to  18  foot 
car  bodies,  is  20  to  25  horse-power  per  car,  which,  with 
a  properly  designed  and  constructed  plant,  will  give 
the  desired  power.  The  cost  of  generating  this 


CONSTEUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  85 

power  for  railway  work  for  16  and  18  foot  cars  is 
three  to  five  cents  per  mile  for  all  expenses  of  the 
generating  station.  In  some  roads  we  find  that  cars 
of  a  larger  size  than  these  do  not  necessarily  take  a 
proportionately  larger  amount  of  power.  We  find 
from  practical  experience  that  a  car  32  or  33  feet 
long,  double  the  size  of  the  16-foot  car,  takes,  under 
general  conditions,  about  50  per  cent,  more  power, 
and  we  find  by  the  same  experience  that  a  trail  car 
adds  about  50  per  cent,  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be 
done  on  the  motor  car  for  the  same  size.  As  to  the 
minimum  and  maximum  amount  of  power  taken  on 
an  electric  car,  we  find  that  a  general  average  for 
a  16-foot  car,  under  ordinary  commercial  con- 
ditions, without  excessive  grades,  is  one  horse-power 
per  car  mile  per  hour;  or,  a  car  operating  at  an 
average  10  miles  per  hour  means  an  average  of  10 
horse-power  per  car.  This  same  car  will  give,  how- 
ever, on  a  load  diagram,  taking  all  its  conditions, 
from  maximum  to  minimum,  a  variation  of  from 
nothing  to  50,  60,  or  even  80  horse-power.  This  gives 
us  an  idea  of  the  severe  strains  and  conditions  to 
which  an  electric  motor  is  subjected.  Under  gen- 
eral conditions,  30  horse-power,  with  two  15  horse- 
power motors,  has  been  found  about  right;  in  fact, 
we  even  find  the  companies  tending  toward  a  larger 
installation  of  power,  particularly  when  using  larger 
than  a  16-foot  car  body,  and  we  find  to-day,  being 
installed  for  rapid  transit  in  inter-suburban  work, 
40  and  50  horse-power  electric  equipments  per  car, 
many  of  them  operating  at  a  speed  of  30,  and  even 
40  miles  per  hour.  As  the  amount  of  power  is 
directly  proportionate  to  the  speed,  we  can  readily 


86        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

see    the    requirements    for    such     an    amount    of 
power." 

Regarding  the  starting  effect,  Mr.  Crosby  reports 
a  test  in  which  he  found  it  took  14  amperes  to  start 
an  ordinary  car  with  Sprague  motors,  on  a  level, 
rusty  track;  as  the  current  was  cut  down  by  a 
resistance,  this  does  not  mean  that  the  voltage  was 
the  full  500.  He  checked  it  with  a  dynamometer 
and  a  rope  and  found  it  took  175  to  200  pounds  for  5 
tons,  or  about  35  to  40  pounds  per  ton,  which  he  said 
checked  exactly  with  the  calculated  torque  result- 
ing from  the  14  amperes.  Mr.  Mailloux  found  that 
the  initial  traction  was  as  high  as  80  to  100  pounds 
per  ton. 

SPEEDS,    GRADES,    LOADS,    ETC. 

Regarding  the  speed  of  electric  cars,  Mr.  F.  L. 
Pope  states :  "  The  average  speed  of  the  horse  car  is 
about  six  miles  per  hour.  The  question  is  some- 
times asked,  how  fast  may  electric  cars  be  safely 
run  in  a  city  street?  One  fact  within  my  own 
knowledge  will  go  far  to  answer  this  question. 
There  is  a  heavily  traveled  street  in  Pittsburgh  only 
36  feet  wide,  containing  a  double-track  cable  road, 
which  leaves  not  more  than  nine  feet  space  on  each  ' 
side.  At  first  the  cable  cars  were  run  at  the  rate  of 
seven  miles  per  hour;  afterward  the  speed  was 
increased  to  9^  miles  per  hour.  The  records  show 
that  there  are  not  so  many  accidents  under  the 
present  arrangement  as  there  were  before.  Pedes- 
trians and  drivers  are  more  careful  and  take  fewer 
chances.  The  schedule  rate  of  the  electric  cars  in 
Cleveland  is  nine  miles  per  hour,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Boston  as  high  as  12.  The  value  of  an  electric 


CONSTRUCTION  ANI>   OPERATION.  8? 

railway  to  the  public  is  largely  determined  by  its 
speed,  but  the  economical  aspect  of  the  question  is 
equally  important.  If  we  make  six  miles  per  hour 
with  horses,  and  nine  with  electricity,  each  car 
does  50  per  cent,  more  work  without  increased 
expense  for  conductors'  and  drivers'  wages,  which 
is  an  important  item.  Another  economical  feature 
due  to  the  use  of  electricity  is  the  ability  to  haul 
one,  or  even  two,  tow  cars  without  loss  of  schedule 
time  on  special  occasions,  when  the  traffic  is  unusu- 
ally great.  Nothing  is  more  astonishing  than  the 
capacity  of  the  electric  cars  to  make  their  schedule 
time  in  the  face  of  the  heavy  storms  of  a  New  Eng- 
land winter.  It  is  a  common  sight  to  see  an  electric 
car  running,  apparently  with  perfect  ease,  up  a 
heavy  grade  through  snow  a  foot  deep,  pushing  or 
pulling  other  cars  loaded  to  their  utmost  capacity." 
From  the  reports  of  a  number  of  companies  com- 
piled by  Mr.  Mansfield,  he  finds  the  following: 
"The  average  speed  of  all  the  roads  is  8.7  miles  per 
hour.  The  maximum  is  30.  The  average  grade  is  6.7 
per  cent.,  and  but  12  roads  report  as  having  none, 
or  very  small  ones.  The  maximum  grade  is  13£  per 
cent.,  and  this  extends  for  1,500  feet.  The  road 
suffering  from  such  an  infliction  is  in  Amsterdam, 
N.  Y.  Thirteen  roads  report  10  per  cent,  or  over. 
Nashville,  Tenn,  reports  an  11  per  ,cent.  grade  for 
1,300  feet,  and  Burlington,  la.,  an  8-J  per  cent,  for 
1,500  feet,  while  Wilmington,  Del.,  reports  a  7^  per 
cent,  for  3,000  feet.  The  loads  carried  up  these 
grades  by  two  15  horse-power  motors  are,  to  say  the 
least,  surprising.  Amsterdam  reports  one  motor  car 
and  52  passengers.  Nashville  reports  one  motor  car 


88        RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

and  77  grown  passengers ;  Burlington,  one  motor  car 
and  75  passengers,  and  Wilmington,  Del.,  reports  one 
motor  car  towing  a  disabled  motor  car.  Several  roads 
report  as  towing  one  car  with  both  full  of  passen- 
gers up  eight  and  even  nine  per  cent,  grades,  but 
for  short  distances.  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  reports  as  hav- 
ing towed  five  cars,  all  loaded,  with  one  motor  car. 
The  grades  in  this  instance  were  slight.  In  all  these 
instances  unquestionably  the  motors  were  exerting 
power  considerably  beyond  their  rated  capacity. 
Trains  carrying  350  passengers  have  been  moved  by 
two  15  horse-power  motors;  200  passengers  is  an 
every-day  occurrence.  Surely  this  is  approaching 
steam  railroad  practice.  Such  information  is  cer- 
tainly useful  to  the  electric  manufacturing  com- 
panies." 

A  number  of  interesting  and  instructive  tests  were 
made  by  Mr.  Charles  Hewitt  of  the  speed  of  electric 
cars  in  city  streets,  from  which  important  conclu- 
sions can  be  drawn.  The  report  is  given  here  prac- 
tically in  full,  as  published :  "  It  has  been  asserted 
that  it  is  impossible  for  any  car  operated  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  city  street  to  make  real  rapid  transit,  on 
account  of  the  crowded  condition  of  the  streets.  A 
close  study  of  our  large  cities  will  show  that  the 
principal  lines  of  travel  are  crowded  for  only  short 
distances,  and  that  beyond  these  crowded  portions 
a  high  rate  of  speed  can  be  maintained  with  safety. 

ult  only  remains  to  be  shown,  then,  what  the  elec- 
tric cars  can  do  with  safety  on  the  unobstructed 
portions  of  their  routes. 

"  Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  speeds 
of  electric  cars,  but  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  no 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.         89 

\r 

speed  record  of  an  electric  car  in  actual  service  has 
ever  been  published  heretofore.  Last  summer  the 
writer  had  the  pleasure  of  making  some  tests  for 
the  Edison  General  Electric  Company,  on  Niagara 
street,  Buffalo,  covering  this  question,  and  the 
result  of  those  tests  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagrams.  The  route  extends  from  Main  street,  in 
the  heart  of  the  city,  to  Hertle  avenue,  by  way  of 
Niagara  street,  a  distance  of  4£  miles,"  or  9  miles 
for  the  round  trip.  The  schedule  time,  including 
terminal  stops,  is  64  minutes,  or  an  average  running 
speed  of  9  miles  per  hour.  Referring  to  the  dia- 
grams, we  will  see  what  speed  the  car  actually  made 
in  order  to  fill  the  schedule  requirement.  A  few 
words  of  explanation  will  perhaps  make  the  dia- 
grams clearer.  The  record  was  made  by  a  Boyer 
railway  speed  recorder,*  belted  direct  to  one  axle  by 
means  of  a  flexible  wire  belt.  Every  movement  of 
the  car,  either  forward  or  backward,  is  therefore 
recorded.  The  horizontal  lines  represent  speed  in 
miles  per  hour  as  shown  at  the  left  hand  end  of 
each  diagram.  The  vertical  lines  represent  quarter 
mile  distances. 

"  The  car  in  each  instance  was  started  from  the  car 
barn,  which  is  in  the  middle  of  the  line,  and  run  to 
Hertle  avenue,  the  suburban  terminus,  thence  back 
to  Main  street,  the  city  terminus.  Ampere  and  volt- 
meter readings  were  taken  every  15  seconds,  and 
when  the  car  was  carrying  passengers  the  number 
on  the  car  was  noted  every  time  any  one  got  on  or 
off.  The  car  was  35  feet  long  over  all,  was  mounted 

*  For  n  description  of  this  instrument  see  Miscellaneous  Appliances  and 
Acc-essories. 


90      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

upon  two  trucks,  and  weighed,  with  the  No.  10  and 
No.  14  motors,  about  20,000  pounds,  and  with  No.  12 
motors  about  22,000  pounds. 

"  The  first  test  was  made  with  the  No.  10  motors ; 
the  car  being  run  from  the  car  barn  to  Hertle 
avenue  terminus  and  back  to  car  barn  without  pas- 
sengers, in  order  to  determine  what  was  the  high- 
est speed  that  could  be  obtained.  As  the  car  had  to 
be  run  in  between  two  cars  in  regular  service,  the 
result  is  somewhat  less  than  what  it  would  have 
been  if  the  track  had  been  entirely  unobstructed, 
but  it  will  be  noted  that  a  speed  of  21  miles  per  hour 
was  attained  within  a  distance  of  2,100  feet  from 
the  full  stop.  The  gradual  acceleration  of  speed 
shown  by  the  gentle  curvature  of  the  line  is  also  of 
some  interest.  The  remaining  runs  before  reaching 
the  car  barn  were  interfered  with  by  overtaking 
the  car  ahead,  although  a  speed  of  17  miles  was 
attained.  At  the  car  barn  the  car  was  put  in  regu- 
lar service  carrying  passengers,  and  the  record 
speaks  for  itself.  The  average  speed  shown  is  some- 
what greater  than  the  schedule  speed,  as  the  time 
of  stops  is  not  recorded.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  order  to  make  a  schedule  speed  of  nine  miles 
per  hour  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  maximum  speed 
of  about  13-J-  miles,  or  50  per  cent,  above  the  sched- 
ule speed.  This  record  also  shows  that  a  car  can 
attain  a  speed  of  15  miles  per  hour  within  a  distance 
of  350  feet  from  full  stop. 

"The  next  test  was  made  with  the  No.  14  motors. 
These  motors  were  mounted  on  the  same  tracks 
that  had  been  used  in  the  previous  test  with  the  No. 
10  motors.  The  car  was  first  run  to  Hertle  avenue 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION. 


91 


FIG.  19.—  Two  No.  10  MOTORS.  AVKRAGE  LOAD  ABOUT  27,000  POUNDS.  TRACK 
Lverage  of  Total  Readings:  494  volts.  18.s  amperes.  12.4  e.  h.  p.,  24  passengers.  A 

out  passengers,  13.1;  with  passengers,  10.4  miles  per  hour. 

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CONSTRUCTION    AND    OPERATION.  05 

and  back  without  passengers,  and  was  then  put  in 
regular  service.  In  connection  with  this  diagram  I 
wish  to  refer  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  beginning 
of  this  article.  Although  no  part  of  Niagara  street 
is  very  crowded,  still  the  interference  is  greatest 
near  the  Main  street  terminus.  It  will  be  noted  that 
in  every  instance  between  Main  street  and  the  car 
barn  the  stops  are  very  numerous,  for  long  stretches 
being  one  to  every  block  (about  600  feet).  Between 
the  car  barn  dud  Hertle  avenue,  however,  the  stops 
are  comparatively  few,  and  it  is  here  we  would 
expect  to  get  a  greater  speed,  as  is  distinctly  shown 
by  the  diagram.  It  is  not  so  prominent,  however,  as 
it  would  have  been  had  the  required  schedule  speed 
been  10  or  12  miles  per  hour,  as  on  some  of  the  long 
lines  in  Boston  and  other  cities.  It  is  evident  from 
the  first  part  of  this  diagram  that  a  speed  of  17£ 
miles  could  have  been  maintained  for  long  stretches 
if  necessary,  thereby  increasing  the  average  speed. 
"The  third  test  was  made  with  the  No.  12  motors. 
These  motors  are  larger  and  more  powerful  than 
the  No.  10  and  No.  14.  The  same  car  body  was  used 
as  in  the  former  tests ,  but  the  motors  were  mounted 
on  new  trucks,  used  for  the  first  time  in  this  test. 
For  this  reason  the  car  was  not  put  in  regular  ser- 
vice. Two  trips  were  made  from  the  car  barn  to  the 
Hertle  avenue  terminus  without  passengers  with 
results  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  Since  this  test 
was  made  this  car  has  attained  a  speed  of  28  miles 
per  hour,  and  has  shown  an  average  ampere  con- 
sumption of  less  than  20.  With  regard  to  the  aver- 
age ampere  readings  in  all  these  diagrams,  it  may 
be  said  that  they  are  somewhat  higher  than  they 


OH        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

would  be  in  ordinary  practice,  due  to  the  long  runs 
at  high  speed  without  passengers,  and  also  to  the 
fact  that  the  starting  current  is  included  in  many 
readings." 

CARS. 

The  chief  matter  of  interest  during  the  past  year, 
regarding  cars,  has  been  the  question  of  whether  it 
is  more  satisfactory  to  use  long  or  short  cars.  The 
balance  of  the  opinion  appears  to  be  in*£avor  of  long 
cars.  Mr.  C.  J.  Field  states:  "One  of  the  questions 
on  which  we  find  more  variety  of  opinion  than  any 
other  is  what  is  the  best  size,  type  and  style  of  car 
for  given  cases  and  conditions.  The  old  standard 
16-foot  car  body  we  find  is  now  being  widely 
departed  from,  and  the  problem  is,  how  large  a  car 
can  we  get  on  a  single  truck  with  four  wheels  with- 
out excessive  destructive  effect  on  the  roadbed? 
and  what  is  the  longest  car  we  can  operate  on 
street  car  service  economically  on  an  eight- wheel 
base?  We  believe  the  limit  is  reached  with  a  single 
truck  in  a  20-foot  car  body ;  we  know  that  the  truck 
manufacturers  claim  in  some  cases  to  operate  a 
longer  body,  but  we  do  not  believe  it  wise.  An  18 
or  20  foot  car,  running  under  close  headway,  we 
believe  to  fulfill  best  the  conditions  of  city  traffic  in 
the  larger  cities.  Such  a  car,  with  a  wheel  base  of 
seven  feet,  and  in  some  cases  seven  feet  six  inches, 
where  curves  are  not  too  sharp,  will  give  satisfac- 
tion, and  not  be  too  severe  on  the  roadbed  where 
the  same  is  properly  constructed.  Some  companies 
have  favored  the  use  of  a  vestibule  on  street  cars. 
We  believe,  though,  that  any  vestibule  is  a  failure 


CONSTRUCTION    AND    OPERATION.  97 

and  a  misnomer.  It  accomplishes  no  good,  and 
causes  much  trouble.  A  shield  over  the  dashboard 
for  the  motor  man  in  winter  would  give  all  that 
would  be  required.  What  is  wanted  on  a  street  car 
is  that  which  will  allow  the  freest  ingress  and  egress , 
from  the  car  for  the  passengers,  and  anything  that- 
retards  this — and  a  vestibule  most  certainly  does — 
is  a  detriment  and  an  obstacle  to  rapid  transit.  On 
some  roads  we  have  tried  the  introduction  of  even 
larger  cars,  say,  28-foot  body,  or  36  feet  over  all. 
Such  a  car,  of  course,  has  to  be  put  on  a  double 
truck.  These  cars  have  found  favor  with  some  com- 
panies when  first  considering  the  problem.  The 
difficulty  with  them  is  in  getting  the  passengers  in 
and  out  of  the  cars  as  quickly  as  possible,  and 
making  too  many  stops,  due  to  the  larger  number  of 
passengers  carried.  For  inter-suburban  heavy  traf- 
fic, with  few  stops,  we  believe  such  a  car  would  ful- 
fill the  requirements,  but  only  in  such  a  case."  The 
same  writer  states  that  a  32  to  33  foot  car  takes, 
under  general  conditions,  about  50  per  cent,  more 
power  than  a  16-foot  car. 

The  West  End  Company  of  "Boston  find  that  there 
is  a  decided  gain  in  the  ratio  of  the  operating- 
expenses  per  passenger  to  the  earnings  in  the  long 
cars  as  compared  with  the  short  cars.  The  weight 
of  a  long  car  empty  is  about  18,000  pounds,  and  they 
find  that  on  the  level  it  takes  an  almost  impercep- 
tibly small  amount  of  additional  power  to  draw  this 
car  when  loaded  with  15,000  pounds  besides  the 
weight  of  the  car ;  on  grades,  of  course,  the  differ- 
ence is  felt.  From  this  they  conclude  that  the  cost 
of  the  power  for  the  long  cars  is  very  little  more 


98        RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS. 

than  for  the  short  ones,  although  they  carry  nearly 
double  the  number  of  passengers ;  the  expense  for 
conductors  and  drivers,  of  course,  remains  the  same, 
while  the  accommodation  of  the  passengers  is  con- 
siderably greater.  They  contemplate  the  general 
introduction  of  long  cars;  175  are  to  be  added  before 
January,  1892,  making  a  total  of  400  long  cars  in 
use  during  the  winter  of  1891-92.  They  also  con- 
template getting  double  deck  cars  for  the  same 
eason.  The  long  cars  earned  44  cents  per  mile  in 
May  and  47  cents  in  June.  The  short  cars  are  1G 
feet  long  and  are  said  to  cost  $4,000  each.  The  long 
cars  which  they  have  adopted  as  their  standard  are 
26  to  28  feet  in  the  body  and  35  feet  over  all. 

Mr.  Beckley,  however,  differs  from  the  above 
opinions,  as  he  considers  it  a  mistake  to  equip  a 
car  body  of  greater  length  than  18  feet,  and  thinks 
a  16-foot  car  is  better  still.  During  the  hours  of  the 
day  when  travel  is  heavy  he  says  it  is  easy  to  pull 
a  trailer,  and  when  traffic  is  light  you  are  not 
then  using  up  your  power  in  hauling  around  a 
"great  lumbering  double  truck  structure  practically 
empty." 

|  MISCELLANEOUS. 

In  a  compilation  from  reports  made  of  a  number 
of  companies,  Mr.  Mansfield  finds  that  44  roads 
report  as  never  having  been  stopped  by  any  cause, 
23  were  forced  to  stop  because  of  the  steam  plant, 
failure  of  water,  floods  or  fire,  and  26  from  electrical 
troubles,  the  main  cause  of  these  troubles  being 
lightning.  "  I  consider  this  a  very  fair  showing,  and 
feel  confident  that  as  the  art  advances  these  tie-ups 


CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.  99 

will  grow  less  and  less,  and  finally  become  of  rare 
occurrence. 

"  Out  of  the  total  number  of  137  roads  heard  from, 
only  32  report  as  having  made  any  tests  of  either 
engines,  dynamo,  or  motors,  and  53  upon  the  over- 
head work.  Surely  this  is  lamentable.'  There  is 
nothing  more  essential  to  an  electric  railroad  than 
a  first-class  voltmeter,  ammeter,  galvanometer, 
and,  if  possible,  a  wattmeter.  Electric  light,  tele- 
graph and  telephone,  and  all  other  electric  com- 
panies are  supplied  with  necessary  testing  instru- 
ments, and  in  most  instances  a  most  rigid  system  is 
maintained.  Every  railroad  should  be  continually 
testing  its  circuits,  station  and  cars  for  leaks  or 
grounds.  By  this  means,  and  this  means  only,  can* 
they  avoid  trouble  and  consequent  damage.  Fur- 
thermore, for  the  sake  of  economy,  these  instruments 
should  be  used  freely.  Particularly  is  a  wattmeter 
useful  in  a  power  station.  I  advise,  urge,  and 
beseech  every  company  to  supply  itself  with  these 
instruments,  and  to  put  them  in  the  hands  of  a 
competent  person,  or  if  they  can  afford  it,  a  thor- 
ough electrician." 

In  another  similar  compilation  it  was  found  that 
the  average  car  mileage  of  a  car  was  about  101 
miles.  The  maximum  reported  was  on  a  small  road, 
in  which  the  cars  made  175  miles  a  day.  Two  other 
small  roads  report  160,  while  a  considerable  number 
gave  125  to  150.  The  lowest  was  46. 

Mr.  Everett  advocates  the  use  of  an  oil  headlight 
that  can  be  removed  easily,  so  that  when  anything 
happens,  say  underneath  the  car,  the  oil  headlight 
can  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  the  electric 


100      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

light.  For  the  same  reason,  he  says  that  one  porta- 
ble oil  light  should  be  kept  in  every  car.  He  also 
advocates  electric  brakes,  electric  fare  registers, 
and  electric  heaters,  which,  he  states,  are  now  used 
on  quite  a  number  of  roads. 

In  a  committee  report  read  by  Mr.  Crosby  on 
"Standards  in  Electric  Railway  Practice,"  published 
in  The  Electrical  World,  page  328,  October  31,  he 
advocated  the  adoption  of  uniformity  in  rating 
motors,  defining  dimensions  of  car,  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  terms  and  phrases  used  in  electric  railway 
work,  and  in  the  method  of  keeping  accounts.  The 
report  is  accompanied  by  suggestions  for  the  basis 
of  such  standards,  including  a  list  of  terms,  with 
their  definitions,  and  a  proposed  standard  method 
of  keeping  accounts.  The  report  is  well  prepared 
and  should  be  studied  by  all  those  interested  in  rail- 
way work.  Want  of  space  prevents  us  from  reprint- 
ing it  here.  

CHAPTER  IV. 

COST  OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND   OPERATION. 

Among  the  matter  published  was  an  article  by 
Mr.  J.  S.  Badger,  which  we  reproduce  here  in  full, 
as  it  contains  very  interesting  and  doubtless  very 
reliable  matter,  and  is  probably  the  best  article  pub- 
lished during  the  year  on  this  subject. 

After  pointing  out  how  difficult  it  was  to  secure 
sufficient  data  to  be  of  value  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison, Mr.  Badger  states : 

"  The  data  herewith  presented  concerning  electric 
roads  have  been  very  carefully  collected,  and  will 
enable  accurate  conclusions  to  be  drawn  respecting 


COST   OF    CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.         101 

the  relative  merits  of  horses,  cable  and  electricity 
as  a  motive  power  for  street  cars.  The  electric 
roads,  which  really  control  the  results,  have  been 
in  operation  since  the  earlier  days  of  the  electric 
railway,  and,  having  passed  the  experimental  stage, 
their  operations  are  well  settled  and  uniform.  In 
several  cases  very  considerable  changes  are  in 
progress,  but  they  are  such  as  will  conduce  to  still 
greater  economy  of  operation. 

"  The  elements  which  enter  into  a  consideration 
of  the  questions  at  issue  are: 

"  First  cost  of  road  and  equipment. 

"  Operating  expenses  per  passenger  carried. 

"Ratio  expenses  to  receipts. 

"  Operating  expenses  per  car  mile. 

"  Upon  the  first  and  last  must  rest  the  decision  as 
to  what  is  the  most  economical  power  for  street 
railways. 

"  The  element  of  first  cost  may  or  may  not  decide 
the  question  at  once.  If  the  capital  available  is  lim- 
ited to  the  amount  necessary  for  the  least  expensive 
construction  and  equipment,  this  settles  the  ques- 
tion of  choice  of  motive  power.  If  the  capital  is 
limited  only  by  the  ability  of  the  road  to  pay  a  rea- 
sonable return  upon  the  investment,  the  question 
becomes  more  complex;  and  whether  a  cheap  or 
expensive  construction  shall  be  adopted  depends 
upon  whether  the  interest  charge  added  to  cost  of 
operation  will  be  large  or  small  when  divided  by 
the  total  number  of  units  of  comparison. 

"  'Passengers  carried  per  mile  of  route'  or  'per 
mile  run'  relates  chiefly  to  density  of  traffic  and 
consequent  value  of  the  franchise,  and  has  only  a 


102     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

distant  bearing  upon  the  question  of  operating 
expenses. 

u  Cost  per  passenger  carried,  and  ratio  of  operating 
expenses  to  receipts,  considered  in  connection  with 
fixed  charges,  relate  to  the  dividend  paying  ability 
of  the  road,  or  the  'value  of  its  securities  as  an 
investment,  bearing  in  mind  the  fact  that  two  roads 
may  sh*>w  the  same  ratio  of  operating  expenses  to 
receipts,  and  one  be  able  to  pay  twice  as  much  as 
the  other  in  dividends,  "therefore  these  elements  do 
not  necessarily  have  any  bearing  upon  the  actual 
economy  of  operation,  or  give  any  indication  as  to 
which  of  any  two  or  more  systems  is  the  most 
economical. 

"  Cost  per  car  mile,  for  cars  of  about  equal  carry- 
ing capacity,  seems  to  be  at  present  the  only  basis 
of  comparison.  This  expense,  within  the  limits  of 
traffic  for  which  the  power  plant  and  equipments 
are  adapted,  remains  pretty  constant,  regardless  of 
variations  in  amount  of  traffic,  but  this  is  directly 
affected  by  change  in  value  in  any  item  of  opera- 
ting expense  just  to  the  extent  that  such  variation 
is  part  of  the  whole  expense. 

"  Whether  a  road  shall  show  a  high  or  low  cost  per 
car  mile  depends  upon  its  physical  characteristics, 
the  motive  power  employed,  to  a  certain  extent 
upon  whether  cars  are  run  singly  or  in  trains,  and 
upon  the  ability  of  the  man  responsible  for  its  me- 
chanical operations. 

"Whether  it  shall  show  a  high  or  a  low  cost  per 
passenger  carried  depends  to  a  certain  extent  upon 
the  foregoing,  but  principally  upon  whether  few  or 
many  can  be  induced  to  ride  upon  it,  and  therefore 


COST  OP    CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.        103 

upon  good  management.  A  careful  examination 
of  the  roads  in  question  shows  the  incorrectness 
of  the  statement  that  those  'which  have  the  least 
expense  per  car  mile  have  the  greatest  expense 
per  passenger  carried.'  There  is  no  uniformity 
in  this  respect  one  way  or  the  other,  as  between 
different  roads.  Theoretically,  the  expense  per 
car  mile  would  slightly  increase  with  an  increase 
in  traffic.  In  a  general  way,  and  without  at- 
tempting to  produce  any  proof  in  support  of  this 
opinion,  it  may  be  said  that,  other  conditions  re- 
maining the  same,  the  expense  per  car  mile  would 
increase  about  as  the  cube  root  of  the  number  of 
passengers  carried.  In  this  way,  and  under  con- 
ditions seldom  realized  in  practice,  the  foregoing 
statement  might  be  true. 

"Expense  per  car  mile,  for  an  electric  road, 
depends  chiefly  upon  cost  of  fuel,  efficiency  of  steam 
and  electric  plant,  wages,  character  of  road  as 
relates  to  grades  and  curves,  and  last,  but  by  no 
means  least,  intelligent  care  of  machinery,  etc. 
Without  a  knowledge  upon  these  points,  a  simple 
statement  of  expenses  per  car  mile  conveys  little 
definite  information.  With  coal  varying  from  $1  to 
$3.80  per  ton,  its  consumption  from  4.3  pounds  to  12.2 
pounds  per  car  mile,  a  station  output  from  3.7  to 
8.4  and  even  10.7  electric  horse-power  per  car  in 
operation,  and  wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 
from  10  to  20  cents  per  hour,  the  importance  of  these 
data  is  at  once  evident. 

"  Regarding  care  of  machinery,  a  comparison  may 
not  be  amiss.  In  the  case  of  one  road,  an  average 
of  one-sixth  of  the  armatures  in  use  go  into  the 


104     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

repair  shop  every  month,  generally  because  burned 
out.  Another  road  using  the  same  system,  opera- 
ting more  cars  upon  heavier  grades,  has  not  had  an 
armature  burned  out  in  nearly  a  year.  As  both  do 
their  own  repairing,  the  manufacturing  company  is 
relieved  of  responsibility  for  this  difference.  Many 
similar  examples  could  be  given. 

"  In  another  instance,  upon  a  road  of  less  than  10 
miles,  there  was  for  months  a  constant  leakage  of 
20  to  30  amperes  on  the  line. 

"While,  therefore,  the  manufacturing  companies 
may  have  been  guilty  of  sins  of  omission,  the  opera- 
ting companies  have  been  guilty  of  sins  of  omis- 
sion and  commission.  Experience  has  been  costly 
for  both.  Electrical  apparatus  must  have  intelli- 
gent care,  or  the  repair  bills  soon  assume  large 
proportions,  and  this  frequently  causes  railway 
companies,  who  do  not  understand  the  true  cause 
of  the  trouble,  to  condemn  electricity  as  an  expen- 
sive motive  power.  What  can  be  and  is  actually 
accomplished  in  practice  is  shown  elsewhere  in 
this  paper.  In  isolated  cases  circumstances  may 
strongly  favor  some  one  of  the  three  systems 
under  consideration  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
others.  This  must  be  determined  by  expert  exami- 
nation ;  but  whichever  shows  the  best  results  out  of 
a  large  number  of  cases  must  stand  at  the  head,  as 
the  most  desirable  and  economical  motive  power  for 
street  railways. 

"The  item  of  first  cost  is  the  subject  of  considera- 
ble discussion.  Direct  information  concerning  cable 
roads  has  not  been  obtainable;  but  as  the  figures 
we  cite  are  those  given  by  the  Census  Department, 


COST  OF  'CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.      105 

and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  questioned  by  any 
authority  upon  the  subject,  they  may  be  accepted 
as  substantially  correct.  Our  data  concerning  horse 
roads,  being  taken  from  sworn  reports  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Railroad  Commissioners,  can  also 
be  relied  upon.  The  figures  given  concerning 
investment  in  electric  roads  have  come  from  official 
'sources,  and  are  confirmed  by  private  information. 
These  are,  however,  excessive.  Most  of  the  roads 
mentioned  were  formerly  horse  roads,  and  to  the 
original  investment  has  b^en  added  the  cost  of 
change  of  motive  power;  and  in  almost  every  case 
the  amount  now  charged  to  permanent  investment 
is  far  in  excess  of  what  it  would  cost  to  renew  the 
entire  power  plant,  track  and  equipment. 

"Estimates  upon  the  track  construction  differ 
greatly,  but  the  limit  of  profitable  investment  is  not 
likely  to  exceed  $10,000  per  mile;  while  as  fine  and 
substantial  a  roadbed  as  electric  car  ever  ran  over 
was  built  at  a  cost,  exclusive  of  paving,  of  about 
$5,000  per  mile. 

"The  overhead  structure  need  not  cost  to  exceed 
$2,500  to  $3,000  per  mile  of  single  track  for  best 
wood  poles,  or  $3,500  to  $5,000  for  iron  poles.  For 
double  track,  iron  poles,  it  would  vary  from  $4,500 
to  $6,500  per  mile,  centre  pole  construction  being 
the  cheaper,  and  in  many  other  respects  preferable 
where  it  can  be  adopted. 

"From  $3,000  to  $3,500  per  car  is  a  liberal  estimate 
for  16-foot  to  20-foot  cars,  fully  equipped,  and  the 
average  is  about  two  cars  per  mile  of  road. 

"An  allowance  of  15  to  20  horse-power  per  car.  at 
$80  to  $100  per  horse-power  for  station  equipment, 


106     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

including  steam  plant,  but  not  real  estate  or  build- 
ings, is  very  liberal. 

"  Thus  we  have,  as  an  extremely  liberal  estimate, 
$26,000  per  mile,  exclusive  of  real  estate,  buildings 
and  paving,  for  a  road  suitable  for  the  heaviest 
metropolitan  traffic.  And  it  is  a  fact  that  a  good 
and  satisfactory  road  can  be  built  and  equipped  for 
$20,000  per  mile. 

"  As  records  of  actual  experience  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  the  statistics  presented  is  invited,  and 
especially  of  those  relating  to  electric  railways.  The 
greater  part  of  these  has  been  obtained  by  personal 
visits  to  the  roads  reported. 

Comparison  of  Investment  and  Operating  Expenses. 


Total  investment 
real    estate,    road 
and  equipment. 

Car  miles 
run  per 
annum 
per  mile 
of  street 
length. 

Passengers  car- 
ried annually 
per  mile  of 
street  length. 

Passengers  car- 
ried per  car 
mile  run. 

Per  mile 
of  street 
length. 

Per  mile 
of  track 
length. 

*  22  Electric  roads     

38,500 
33,406 
350.325 

27,780 
31,093 
184,275 

76,158 
43,345 
309,395 

237,038 
251.816 
1,355,965 

3.10 
5.81 
4.38 

i  45  Morse  roads  

J  10  Cable  roads 

"  Table  I.  shows  that,  taking  street  length  as  the 
unit  of  comparison,  in  the  cases  of  the  roads  under 
consideration,  the  total  permanent  investment  of 
the  electric  is  only  15  per  cent,  more  than  that  of 

*  Car  miles  run  per  annum,  14.013,187;  passensrers  carried  per  annum, 
43.614.972;  street  length.  184  miles  ;  track  length,  255  miles. 

t  All  the  roads  in  Massachusetts  operated  exclusively  by  horses  for 
1885-90.  Average  for  six  years. 

I  From  Census  Bulletin  No.  55. 


COST  OF    CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION. 


107 


the  horse  roads,  while  the  cable  roads  cost  more 
than  nine  times  as  much  as  the  electric  roads.  The 
average  speed  of  cable  and  of  electric  cars  is  about 
the  same,  consequently  the  cable  roads  ran  about 
four  times  as  many  cars  per  mile  of  street  length  as 
the  electric.  This  would  be  expected,  as  the  cable 
roads  generally  occupy  the  routes  of  heaviest' 
travel.  The  horse  roads  ran  more  cars  than  the 
electric,  for  an  equal  length  of  road,  but  the  latter, 
having  an  advantage  in  higher  speed,  greatly 
exceed  in  car  miles  run.  The  electric  roads  carried 
fewest  passengers  per  car  mile,  but  carried  as  many 
per  mile  of  street  occupied  as  the  horse  roads.  On 
account  of  their  more  favorable  location,  the  cable 
roads. exceed  both  the  others  in  passengers  per  mile 
of  route.  The  column  showing  passengers  carried 
per  mile  run  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  relative 
number  of  passengers  on  a  car  at  any  one  time. 

TABLK  II. 


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p< 

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c"  — 

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^'S'S 

fl 

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c  C-S 

fr'-'s 

2n 

P    ^4    &J    [> 

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r-t    ^ 

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££ 

S  g  P..C 

*^  <c.2'S 

"  0  0 

«  ?  a 

0 

§ 

H 

O 

a 

Elootvic  roads 

(Cejits.) 
11.02 

(Cents.) 
3.03 

(Cents). 
14.05 

(Cents.) 
3.55 

(Cents.) 
4.53 

Horse  roads            

24.32 

4.62 

28.94 

4.18 

4.98 

Cable  rojids 

14.12 

6.97 

20.91 

3.22 

4.77 

"Table  II.  shows  operating  expenses  per  car  mile, 
all  taxes  and  fixed  charges  excluded,  for  each  of 


108      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

the  three  systems;  interest  charge  per  mile  at  six 
per  cent,  upon  the  total  permanent  investment; 
total  of  operating  expenses  and  interest  per  car 
mile;  cost  per  passenger  carried,  interest  charge 
excluded,  and  the  same  with  interest  charge 
included.  Upon  every  point,  save  the  one  unim- 
portant one  of  cost  per  passenger  carried  (interest 
excluded),  the  superiority  of  the  electrc  road  is 
plainly  evident. 


TABLE  III. 


I, 

If 

11 

||2|| 

If 

I| 

|i 

pit!' 

tn  ty 

Ba 

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•^  £  o  ^  S 

t-  ""• 

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c  ^'S 

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0.2 

.25  =" 

•|£  2 

«*" 

1s-2 

PH 

£ 

Electric  roads  

1.152 

1.757 

.485 

.852 

Horse  roads 

1.000 

1.000 

1.000 

1.000 

Cable  roads... 

10.486 

7.138 

.722 

5.154 

"Table  III.,  for  greater  convenience  in  compari- 
son, shows  the  ratios  of  the  three  most  important 
items,  and  the  proportional  traffic  that  must  be  done, 
per  mile  of  street  occupied,  for  each  system,  to  pay 
operating  expenses  and  six  per  cent,  on  the  invest- 
ment. Here,  more  than  anywhere  else,  the  superi- 
ority of  the  electric  road  is  plainly  evident,  the  last 
column  showing  that  in  but  few  cases  can  there  be 
even  a  question  as  to  which  system  offers  the  great- 
est inducement  to  the  investor. 


COST   OP    CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.         109 

SKVEN  REPRESENTATIVE  ROADS,   OPERATED    ENTIRELY  BY   ELECTRICITY. 


Length. 

A  i*3 

S£ 

k* 

J->  00 

<D    t4    .- 

>j 

'    !-> 

X  s 

1  3 

fl 

**3 

gs 

i* 

•=?,3 

5  3  ° 

o  o 

®g 

^S 

!•=• 

d 

1 

cS 

PL 

^ 

<D 
«  iC 
il  S 

CS  13     . 

ill 

s% 

61-  a 

S?^1 

M 

&^ 

1 

•3 

8 

lill 

|a| 

pi 

Icl 

111 

HI 

III 

f  S 

M 

0 

0 

PH 

£ 

^ 

PH 

0 

o  •  ' 

0 

1 

51.0 

35.0 

*162,857 

50 

100 

313 

3.13 

12.29 

12.29 

3.93 

2 

40.0 

19.5 

487,582 

140 

91 

188 

2.06 

7.80 

7.10 

3.79 

3 

16.0 

10.0 

199,000 

16 

125 

343 

2.75 

8.43 

10.54 

3.07 

4 

8.5 

5.0 

*460,000 

20 

83 

318 

3.82 

11.82 

9.80 

3.09 

5 

15.5 

14.0 

167,511 

18 

106 

357 

3.35 

11.00 

11.70 

3.28 

6 

28.0 

23.5 

286,852 

31 

108 

597 

5.51 

12.74 

13.76 

2.31 

7 

3.8 

2.8 

200,000 

5 

92 

307 

3.33 

8.49 

7.81 

2.55 

162.8 

109.8 

280 

9.83 

3.28 

Total  annual  car  mileage,  9,862,000.    Total  number  of  passengers  carried 
annually,  29,144,000. 

"  If  the  electric  roads  carried  as  many  passengers 
per  car  mile  run  as  the  horse  or  cable  roads,  which 
they  could  easily  do,  and  allowing  for  the  increase 
in  operating  expenses  due  to  increased  traffic,  the 
cost  per  passenger  carried  would  be  as  follows : 

Per  passenger. 
Cents. 

At,  5.81  passengers  per  car  mile  (number  carried  by  horse  roads) 
the  cost  would  be.  interest  charge  excluded 2.38 

At  ft.81  passengers  (as  above)  cost  would  be,  interest  charge  in- 
cluded.          3>2 

At  4.38  passengers  per  car  mile  (number  carried  by  cable  roads) 
the  cost  would  be,  interest  charge  excluded 2.82 

At  4.38  passengers  (as  above)  cost  would  be,  interest  charge  in- 
cluded          3.51 

"  This  is  not  in  any  way  an  attempt  to  decry  the 
cable  system,  as  it  is  undeniable  that  it  has  a  place 
of  its  own.  where  it  is  satisfactory  to  the  public  and 
profitable  to  the  investors;  but  the  claim  is  that, 
under  all  circumstances,  the  electric  road  can 
handle  just  as  heavy  traffic,  as  readily  and  satisfac- 

*  Estimated. 


110      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

torily  to  the  public,  with  much  greater  economy  in 
operation  and  much  less  investment  of  capital." 

Mr.  Badger's  paper  concludes  with  the  following 
statistics  of  electricity. 

Operating  Expenses  of  Electric  Roads. 
"Average  of  22  trolley  roads.     Length  varying 
from  3  to  51  miles;  cars  in  daily  operation,  3  to  140; 
daily   mileage   per  car,   80  to   150;    average  daily 
mileage  per  car,  110. 

Expense  per  car  mile. 

. (Ceuts) , 

Highest.    Lowest.     Av'r. 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track 1.86  .10  .54 

Maintenance  of  line 95  .0]  .12 

Maintenance  of  power  plant,  including  repairs  on 
engines,  dynamos,  buildings,  etc 86  .05  .36 

Cost  of  power,  including  fuel,  wages  of  engineers, 
firemen,  dynamo  tenders,  oil,  waste,  water,  and 
other  supplies 4.95  .48  1.96 

Repairs  on  cars  and  motors 5.2*  .51)          1.80 

Transportation  expenses,  including  wages  of  con- 
ductors, motor  men,  starters,  and  switchmen,  re- 
moval of  snow  and  ice,  accidents  to  persons  and 
property,  etc 9.47  2.74  4.98 

General  expenses,  including  salaries  of  officers 
and  clerks,  office  expenses,  advertising,  printing, 
legal  expenses,  insurance,  etc 2.95  .79  1.26 

Total *22.99         *7.80         11.02 

Cost  of  coal  varies  from  $1  per  ton  for  slack,  to 
$3  for  r.  o.  m.  (run  of  mine),  and  $3.80  for  lump. 

Wages. of  conductors  and  motor  men  vary  from 
10  cents  to  20  cents  per  hour. 

Consumption  of  coal  varies  from  4.3  pounds  of 
slack  per  car  mile  to  12.2  pounds  r.  o.  m.  per  car 
mile. 

The  station  output  varies  from  3.7  e.  h.  p.  (elec- 
trical horse-power)  to  8.4  e.  h.  p.  per  car  in  opera- 
tion, for  roads  equipped  with  10-foot  cars  and  Edison 
motors.  In  the  latter  case  the  road  had  many  heavy 

*  Respectively  the  highest  and  lowest  total  for  any  one  road. 


COST   OF    CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.         Ill 

grades  and  sharp  curves.  One  road,  equipped  with 
30-foot  double-truck  cars  (weight  complete  about 
10  tons),  six  Edison  and  14  Short  double  15  h.  p. 
equipments,  traffic  medium  and  grades  moderate, 
required  an  average  of  10.7  e.  h.  p.  per  car  in  opera- 
tion. 

The  best  station  performance  is  one  e.  h.  p.  for 
every  five  pounds  of  slack  or  four  pounds  of  nut 
consumed ;  and  evaporation  of  7i  pounds  of  water 
for  every  pound  of  slack  consumed.  Return  tubular 
boilers,  Murphy  furnaces,  Armington  &  Sims  high- 
speed, single  cylinder,  non-condensing  engines,  and 
Edison  generators  are  in  use. 

Detailed  Distribution  of  Operating  Expenses. 

For  roads  of  10  or  15  miles  and  upward,  operating 
20  or  more  cars  per  day,  averaging  105  to  110  miles 
each,  grades  moderate,  a  careful  distribution  of 
expenses,  based  upon  the  experience  of  the  best 
roads,  will  average  about  as  follows : 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track „ .54 

Maintenance  of  line .12 

Maintenance  of  power  plant  : 

Repairs  on  endues  and  boilers 180 

Repairs  ou  dynamos 101 

Miscellaneous  repairs 078 —  .36 

Cost  of  power : 

Fuel ." 868 

Wagea  of  engineers  and  firemen 653 

Wages  of  dynamo  tenders,  etc 232 

Oil,  waste,  water  and  other  supplies 218—1.96 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

Repairs  on  motors  (extra  gearing) 695 

Repairs  on  gearing  and  trolleys. 594 

Repairs  on  car  bodies  and  trucks 512—1.80 

Transportation  expenses : 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 4.262 

Wages  of  starters,  switchmen,  track  sweepers,  etc...'. 268 

Cleaning  and  inspecting  cars 238 

Oil,  waste  and  other  supplies 083 

Accidents  to  persons  and  property 061 

Miscellaneous 068 — 4.98 


112      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

Expenses  per  car  mile, 

(Cents.) 
General  expenses: 

Salaries  of  officers  and  clerks 743 

Office  expenses 138 

Ad vertising  aud  pri u ting 061 

Legal  expenses 068 

Insurance '. 161 

Miscellaneous 091—1.26 

Total...  11.02 


Some  Representative  Roads. 

ROAD  NUMBER  ONE. 

BOILERS.— Four  H.  T. ;  10x66,  with  54  4-iri.  tubes. 

FUEL. — Nut  and  slack,  at  $2  per  ton.  Consump- 
tion, 5.7  pounds  per  car  mile. 

ENGINES. — One  250-h.p.  Corliss,  one  150-h.  p.  Ball, 
one  150-h.  p.  Brown.  Generators  driven  from  coun- 
tershafts, except  from  Ball  engine. 

GENERATORS. — Two  No.  32,  four  No.  20.     Edison. 

ROADBED. — Tram  and  centre-bearing  and  side- 
bearing  girder  rail.  Weight,  45,  52,  and  56^  pounds. 
Four  miles  paved.  Railway  company  do  not  pave 
or  do  repairing.  Length  of  all  tracks,  8.5  miles; 
street  length,  5  miles.  Generally  good  condition. 

GRADES.— Steepest,  13.2  per  cent.;  length,  100 
feet.  General  character  of  road  moderately  heavy. 

CARS. — Total  number  in  equipment,  36  motor; 
length  14  and  16  feet.  Average  number  in  daily  use, 
20.  No  trail  cars  used. 

CAR  MILEAGE  for  one  year,  601,966;  daily  aver- 
age, 1,663;  daily  average  per  car,  83.15. 

WAGES. — Conductors  and  motor  men,  15  cents  per 
hour ;  engineers,  $100  aiict  $90  per  month. 


COST   OF    CONSTRUCTION   AND    OPERATION.         113 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track* 1.05 

Maintenance  of  line .07 

Maintenance  of  power  plant  : 

Repai rs  on  engines 035 

Miscellaneous  repairs 016—  .05 

Cost  of  poicer : 

Fuel  (nut  and  slack,  at  $2.00  per  ton) 671 

Wages  of  engineers  and  firemen 591 

Oil  and  waste 063 

Water  (at  7  cents  per  1,000  gallons) 092 

Other  supplies 010—1.43 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

Repairs  on  motors  (ex.  gearing) 917 

Repairs  on  gears  and  trolleys 224 

Repairs  on  car  bodies  and  trucks , 501 

New  attachments 204—1.85 

Transportation  expenses : 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 4.635 

Wages  of  starters,  switchmen,  and  track  sweepers 318 

Removal  of  snow  and  ice 137 

Accidents  to  persons  and  property 026 

Cleaning  and  inspecting  cars 298 

Oil,  waste  and  other  supplies 032 

Animals,  registers,  and  sundries 268 — 5.72 

General  expenses: 

Salaries,  insurance,  etc 1.532 

Office  ex penses 041 

Advertising  and  printing 051 

I ,egal  expenses 004 

Miscellaneous 018—1.65 

Total 11.62 


ROAD  NUMBER  TWO. 

BOILERS.— Four  H.  T.,  14x78. 

FUEL.— Nut  and  slack,  at  $1.75  per  ton.  Consump- 
tion, 11  pounds  per  car  mile. 

ENGINES.— Two  125-h.  p.  Taylor-Beck;  one  175-h.  p. 
Taylor-Beck;  and  (put  in  July,  1891),  one  250-h.  p. 
Armington  &  Sims.  Steam  pressure,  80  pounds. 

GENERATORS.— Five  No.  32,  Edison,  belted  direct 
from  engines. 

ROADBED.— 25,  30,  40   and   56    pound   T  rail;    35, 

*  Fncluding  the  entire  reconstruction  of  one  and  one-half  miles  of  track 
with  new  rail. 


116      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  tnilc. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track .95 

Maintenance  of  line .20 

Maintenance  of  power  plant : 
Repairs  of  engines,  dynamos,  etc .39 

Cost  of  power: 

Fuel  (r.  o.  in. ,  at  $2.68  per  ton) 1.643 

Wages  of  engineers  and  flremeu 425 

Oil,  waste,  and  other  supplies 204—2.27 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

Repairs  on  motors  (ex.  gearing) 1.210 

Repairs  on  gearing,  car  bodies,  and  trucks 852 

Machine  shops  and  mechanics 943—3.01 

Transportation  expenses  : 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 4.473 

Accidents  to  persons  and  property  (insurance) 190 

Cleaning  and  inspecting,  oil,   waste,  etc.,  included  in  machine 
shops  and  mechanics 4.66 

General  expenses : 

Snliiries  of  officers  and  clerks 460 

Office  expenses 162 

Miscellaneous 188—  .81 

Total 12.29 

ROAD  NUMBER  FOUR. 

BOILERS. — H.  T.,  with  Murphy  furnace. 

FUEL. — Slack,  at  $1.00  per  ton.  Consumption,  4.3 
pounds  per  car  mile. 

ENGINES. — Three  200-h.  p.  and  three  125-h.  p. 
Armington  &  Sims,  belted  direct  to  generators. 
Steam  pressure,  100  pounds. 

GENERATORS. — Six  No.  32  and  six  No.  16.     Edison. 

ROADBED. — Sixty-six  pound  girder  rail.  All 
paved.  Railway  company  pave  and  maintain  1C  feet 
in  width  of  street.  Length  of  all  tracks,  40  miles; 
street  length,  19^  miles.  In  good  condition. 

GRADES. — Steepest,  5  per  cent. ;  length,  400  feet. 
General  character  of  road,  level. 

CARS. — Total  number  in  equipment,  85  motor,  140 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.          117 

trail.  Length,  16  feet.  Average  number  in  use 
daily,  70  motor.  70  trail. 

ANNUAL  CAR  MILEAGE.— 4,625,636  miles;  daily 
average,  12,776;  daily  average  per  car.  91.1. 

WAGES.— Motor  men,  $2  for  12  hours.  Conductors, 
$1.75  for  12  hours  first  year,  $1.90  after  first  year. 
Shop  men  $1.50  to  $3  for  10  hours. 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Cost  of  power : 

Fuel 218 

Wages  of  engineers  and  firemen 152 

All  station  repairs  and  supplies Ill —  .48 

Md iulenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

Repairs  on  motors  and  gearing 918 

Repairs  on  car  bodies  and  trucks •. . . .     .442—1.36 

All  other  operating  expenses 6.96 

Total 7.8 

ROAD  NUMBER  FIVE. 

BOILERS.— H.  T.,  two  78x16. 

FUEL.—  R.  o.  m.  at  $2.15  per  ton.  Consumption, 
6.4  pounds  per  car  mile. 

ENGINES.— Ball;  three  150-h.  p.,  single  high-speed. 
Steam  pressure,  95  to  100. 

GENERATORS.— Six  No.  32,  belted  direct  from 
engines. 

ROADBED. — Forty-five  and  fifty -two  pound  girder. 
Street  length,  14  miles;  length  of  all  tracks,  15.5 
miles.  Seven  miles  track  length  paved.  Company 
pave  between  tracks  and  maintain.  In  good  con- 
dition. 

GRADES.— Steepest,  10  per  cent. ;  length,  775  feet. 
General  character  of  road,  moderate. 

CARS. — Total  number  in  equipment,  52;  25  motor 
(20  double,  5  single).  Length,  16  feet  closed,  21  feet, 


118      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

30  feet.  32  feet  open.  All  single  track.  Average 
number  in  use  daily,  18  motor. 

ANNUAL  CAR  MILEAGE,  699,060;  daily  average 
per  car,  106.4. 

WAGES. — Conductors  and  motor  men,  15  cents  per 
hour ;  engineers,  $70  and  $85  per  month ;  mechanics, 
$2  to  $2.25  per  day;  laborers,  15  cents  per  hour. 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track .17 

Maintenance  of  line .21 

Maintenance  of  power  plant  : 

Repairs  on  engines  and  boilers 027 

Repairs  on  dynamos 026 

Miscellaneous  repairs 037—  .09 

Cost  of  power  : 

Fuel  (r.  <>.  in.  at  $2.15  per  ton) 690 

Wajres  of  engineers  and  firemen 393 

Oil  and  waste 058 

Water  (at  10  cents  per  1,000  gallons) 054—1.20 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

*Repairs  on  motors 2.086 

Repairs  on  car  bodies  and  trucks 239—2.33 

Transportation  expenses  : 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 5.032 

*Cleaning  and  inspecting,  and  oil  and  waste  for  motors  (see  note 

below 

Miscellaneous 035    5.07 

General  expenses : 

Salaries  and  office  expenses 544 

Advertising  and  printing 086 

Insurance 071—  .70 

t Incidental  expenses 1.23 

Total...  11.00 


ROAD  NUMBER  SIX. 

Length  of  road,  four  miles ;  grades,  heavy ;  aver- 
age number  of  cars  in  daily  operation,  five  passen- 

*Tn  the  item  of  repairs  on  motors  are  included  geai'ing.  cleaning  and  in- 
specting, oil  and  waste  for  motors,  and  also  the  expense" incurred  in  cliang- 
ing  the  motors  from  closed  to  open  cars  in  the  spring  and  back  aeain  in  the 
fall. 

t  Under  this  head  are  included  a  large  number  of  small  items  which  should 
probably  be  distributed  about  pro  rata  under  the  seven  other  heads. 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.          119 

ger,  one  freight ;   average  daily  mileage  of  passen- 
ger cars.  96.6. 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track .10 

M aiutenance  of  line .06 

Maintenance  of  power  plant  : 

Repairs  011  engines  and  boilers • 072 

Repairs  on  dynamos 017 

Miscellaneous  repairs 007—  .10 

Cost  of  power : 

Fuel   2.147 

Wages  of  engineers  and  ti reinen 774 

Wages  of  dynamo  tenders  and  mechanics 100 

Oil  :uid  waste 217 

Water 294 

Other  supplies 232—3.76 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock  : 

Repairs  on  motors 410 

Repairs  on  car  bodies  and  trucks 176—  .59 

Transportation  expenses  : 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 3.653 

Wages  of  track  sweepers,  etc 237 

Accidents  to  persons  and  property 007 

Cleaning  and  inspecting  cars ,826 

Oil,  waste  and  other  supplies 134 

Wages  of  freight  hands 1.270—6.13 

General  expenses: 

Salaries  of  officers  and  clerks 1.370 

Office  expenses 070 

Advertising  and  printing 261 

Insurance 168—1.87 


Total 12.61 

The  above  are  results  for  a  period  of  nine  months. 
Coal  cost  $3  per  ton  for  r.  o.  m.  and  $3.80  for  lump. 
Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men,  9  to  11  cents 
per  hour.  Water  cost  20  cents  per  1,000  gallons.  In 
the  above  no  account  is  taken  of  the  mileage  of  the 
freight  cars.  The  cost  of  operation  per  car  per  day, 
including  freight  cars,  is  $10.11.  Deducting  cost  of 
operating  freight  cars  entirely,  cost  of  passengers 
cars  alone  is  11.20  cents  per  car  mile.  In  the  nine 
months  the  freight  cars  hauled  16,738,000  pounds 
of  freight. 


120      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

This  road  is  not  one  of  the  six  already  referred  to. 

ROAD  NUMBER  SEVEN. 

Operating  18  miles  by  electricity  and  4|  by  horses. 

Electric  System. 

BOILERS.— Babcock  &  Wilcox. 

FUEL. — Three  parts  "pea  and  dust"  (hard)  to  one 
part  lump  (soft).  Average  price,  $2.23  per  ton.  Con- 
sumption, 4.7  pounds  per  car  mile,  costing  .524 
cent. 

ENGINES.— One  400-h.  p.  Green,  condensing,  50  to 
55  pounds  steam  pressure,  belted  direct  to  three  No. 
32  Edison  dynamos,  and  two  150-h.  p.  Corliss,  con- 
densing, 80  pounds  steam  pressure,  belted  to  count- 
tershaft,  thence  to  three  No.  32  Edison  dynamos. 

ROADBED.— Johnson  girder  rail,  45,  56  and  63 
pounds.  Length  of  all  tracks,  18  miles;  street 
lengths,  15  miles.  All  paved  between  tracks.  Rail- 
road company  keep  paving  in  order.  Track  in  good 
condition. 

GRADES. — Steepest,  8.4  per  cent. ;  length,  500  feet. 
General  character  of  road  moderate. 

CARS. — Thirty-six  closed,  double  motors,  16  and  20 
feet  long;  25  open,  single  motors,  16  feet.  Average 
number  in  use  daily,  19  closed,  9  open. 

CAR  MILEAGE.— Total  from  April  1  to  October  1, 
1891,  549,177.  Daily  average  per  car,  107. 

PASSENGERS  CARRIED. — Total  from  April  1  to  Octo- 
ber 1,  1891,  3,508,168. 

WAGES  of  conductors  and  motor  men,  $2  per  day 
of  11  hours. 


COST  OP  CONSTRUCTION   AND  OPERATION.         121 

OPERATING  EXPENSES,   TAXES  AND  TOLLS. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 

Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track,  based  on  experience  of  seven 
years  at  $900  per  mile  per  annum 1.516 

Maintenance  of  line,  including  material,  wages  of  linemen  and 
horse  keeping 569 

Cost  of  power,  including  fuel,  oil  and  waste,  engineers  and  fire- 
men, master  mechanic,  water,  repairs  to  engines,  boilers,  station 
apparatus  and  building 1.304 

Motor  repairs,  including  material,  wages  superintendent  and  repair 
men,  carpenter,  blacksmith  and  machinist  work 1.402 

Wages  of  conductors  and  motor  men 4.815 

Sundry  expenses,  including  starters,  flagmen,  foremen,  watchmen, 
washing  cars,  sundry  help,  gas,  coal,  water,  oil,  repairs  to  car 
bodies  and  trucks  by  carpenters,  blacksmiths  and  machinists 1.684 

Extraordinary  repairs,  including  repairing  two  burned  cars,  two 
dynamo  armatures  burned  by  lightning,  $2,000  paid  for  exchange 
of  46  motor  armatures,  shaft  repairs,  and  rent  of  extra  station 
building 725 

Extraordinary  horse  expenses,  including  horses  kept  over  and  not 
used  on  horse  road 284 

General  officers,  clerks  and  superintendents,  less  20  per  cent, 
charged  to  horse  road 1.051 

Legal  expenses  and  damages,  less  20  per  cent.,  as  above 291 

Insurance 184 

Property,  dividend  and  capital  taxes,  and  bridge  rent  and  tolls 1.090 


Total  of  all  operating  expenses,  taxes  and  tolls 14.915 

Depreciation* 

The  yearly  depreciation  on  cost  of  boilers,  electric 
lines,  motors,  and  electrical  and  mechanical  appli- 
ances connected  therewith,  is  estimated  at  10  per 
cent ;  the  yearly  depreciation  on  engines,  dynamos, 
and  appliances  at  5  per  cent.  On  this  basis  the  total 
depreciation  is  2.141  cents  per  car  mile. 

Horse  System. 

CAR  MILEAGE. — Total  from  April  1  to  October  1, 
1891,  136,933,  on  4i  miles  of  track. 

OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 
Maintenance  of  roadbed  and  track,  based  on  experience  of  seven 

years,  at  $500  per  mile  per  annum 1.059 

Power,  including  feed,  shoeing,  repairs  to  harness,  depreciation  of 

horses,  barn  men,  etc 9.141 

Conductors  and  drivers 7.806 

Other  items,  including  \v;ishing  cars,  foremen,  watchmen,  starters, 
gas,  water,  coal,  oil, etc... 1.464 


1%%     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Expenses  per  car  mile. 
(Cents.) 
General  officers,  clerks,  superintendents,  etc.,  20  per  cent,  of  total 

amount 1.054 

Legal  expenses  and  damages,  20  per  cent.,  as  above .292 

Insurance 179 

All  taxes  and  bridge  tolls  and  rents 980 

Total  of  all  operating  expenses,  taxes  and  tolls 21.975 

NOTE. — In  justice  to  the  horse  system,  it  might  be  added  that  for  the  past 
two  years  the  price  of  feed  has  been  much  above  the  general  average. 

COMPARATIVE  SHOWING. 

Electric.      Horse. 

Recodpts  per  car  mile 30.30  21.07 

Operating  expenses,  taxes  and  tolls 14.92  21.98 

Net  earnings 15.38 

In  an  article  on  the  cost  of  equipment,  Mr.  C.  J. 
Field  gives  the  following  estimate : 

I  propose  to  take,  as  the  best  means  of  illustrat- 
ing practically  the  purchase,  equipment  and  oper- 
ation of  a  street  railway  system  with  electricity, 
a  city  with  a  population  of  say  100,000 — with  a 
dilapidated  street  railway  system,  earning  a  gross 
income  of  $125,000,  to  purchase  same  for  $500,000 — 
property  rights,  franchises,  etc. — and  equip  it  with 
40  miles  of  single  track  and  65  electric  cars. 

COST  OF  EQUIPMENT. 

Steam  plant  n,500-/t.  p.  steam  plant)  : 
Five  engines,  250-1).  p.  each,  compound  condensing,  size  16 

inches  X  32  inches  X  42  inches,  with  wheels  weighing 

30,000  pounds $32,500 

Eight  R.  T.  boilers,  72  inches  X  16  feet 9.COO 

Jet  condensers 3,000 

Two  boiler  feed  pumps 900 

Steam  and  exhaust  piping 12,000 

Five  engine  foundations. I 3,500 

Eight  boiler  settings 3,200 

Five  30-inch  belts 2,000 

Erecting  and  starting 3,500 

Freight  and  miscellaneous '. 2,500 

$72,700 

Electrical  plant: 

Fi ve  generators,  200  kilowatts,  $7,500 $37,500 

Switchboard  installation,  foundations,  etc 4,000 

41,500 

Building  : 

Power  station,  including  stack,  traveling  crane,  etc $25,000 

Car  house  and  repair  shop,  including  tools,  etc 15,000 

40,000 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.         123 

Track  construction : 
40  miles  irirder  rail  construction,  ties  1)4  feet  centres,  G3- 

ponml  rail,  etc.,  $1.15  per  foot $244.880 

Relaying,  including  paving,  etc.,  at  60  cents  per  foot 12(>,T20 

Trucking,  hauling,  etc 24,000 

Ties,  including  10  per  cent,  of  joint  ties,  130,000  at  40  cents  52,000 

Ties,  including  10  per  cent,  of  joint  ties,  15,000  at  70  cents..  10,500 

45G,K,0 

Line  construction  : 

Ten  miles  iron  poles,  etc $75,000 

Ten  miles  wooden  poles,  etc 40,000 

115,000 

Car  equipment: 

65  electrical  equipments  at  $2,000 $130,000 

65  car  bodies,  18-foot  body,  with  open  ends 65,000 

65  trucks  at  $250 16,250 

211,20) 

Summary: 

Steam  plant $72.700 

Electrical  plant 41.500 

Building 40.000 

Track 456,000 

Line  construction 115,000 

Car  equipment 211,250 

$936,550 

Superintendent's  and  engineer's  work $50,000 

General  and  miscellaneous 50,000 

—          100,000 


$1,035,550 
Original  purchase 500,000 

Total  cost  re-equipped » $1,535,550 

Gross  income,  say,  $350,000. 

Net  income,  say  35  per  cent.,  equal  to  8  per  cent,  on 
cost  on  the  basis  of  an  investment  of  about  one  million 
and  a  half  of  dollars,  and  from  a  property  which  in 
many  instances  was  hardly  earning  its  fixed 
charges  formerly. 

The  cost  of  overhead  construction  he  summarizes 
as  follows : 

Line  construction  per  mile,  complete,  including  track  bond- 
ing, plain  pole  work,  cross  suspension  or  bracket  with 
feed  wire $2,000  to  $2.500 

With  sawed  and  painted  poles 2,500  to   3,000 

Iron  poles,  cross  suspension,  concrete  setting,  double  track, 

feed  nnd  guard  wires 6,500  to  7,noO 

Same  with  centre  poles 4,500  to   5,500 

He  also  appends  a  table,  which  will  give  a  gen- 
eral summary  of  the  cost  of  electric  equipment  of 
street  railway  systems,  omitting  the  track  construe- 


124     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

tion,  which,  of  course,  varies  with  the  number  of 
miles  to  be  equipped. 

COST  OF  ELECTRIC  EQUIPMENTS  FOR  STREET  RAILROADS. 


No. 
of 
cars. 

Steam 
plant 
h.p. 

Capacity 
of  gener- 
ators. 
K.  W. 

Steain 
plant.* 

Station 
elec- 
trical 
equip- 
ment. 

Car 
equip- 
ments, 
car 
trucks 
and 

Line  con- 
struction 
y>  mile 
of  double 
track 

Total 
equip- 
ment 
(omitting 
track). 

motors. 

6 
10 

120 
225 

80 
150 

$7,000 
11,000 

$fi,400 
10.500 

$19,500 
32,500 

$7,500 
12,500 

$40,400 
66,500 

15 

375 

240 

17,500 

15.000 

48,750 

30,000 

111,250 

20 

450 

300 

22,000 

17,500 

C6,()00 

40,000 

144,500 

30 

675 

450 

2H,000 

22.000 

97.500 

90.000 

237,500 

50 

1.125 

750 

50,000 

33,000 

1(52,500 

187,500 

433,000 

100 

2,025 

1,350 

90,000 

00,000 

325,000 

375,000 

850,000 

The  above  figures  are  approximate  only,  and  based  on  the  best  city  rail- 
road practice. 


The  cost  of  a  single  car  equipped,  including  the 
car  body,  truck  and  motors,  he  states,  is  from  $3,000 
to  $3,500,  and  the  cost  of  the  electric  part  of  the 
power-generating  plant  is  from  $35  to  $45  per  horse- 
power. 

In  a  lecture  by  Professor  Marks  on  high  speed 
inter-urban  electric  roads  to  be  run  at  a  speed  of  &J- 
miles  per  minute,  he  states  that  a  conduit  could  be 
devised  for  containing  the  wires  which  would  not 
cost  more  than  $35,000  a  mile ;  the  power,  he  says, 
would  not  cost  more  than  five  cents  per  horse-power 
per  hour,  including  the  regie. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  U.  S.  Census 
Reports,  gives  some  statistics  showing  the  distribu- 
tion and  costs  of  roads  operated  in  different  ways : 

'  Add  25  per  cent,  to  these  figures  for  Corliss. 


COST   OF   CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION. 


125 


Items. 

All  motive 
powers. 

Distributed. 

Auimal. 

Electric. 

Cable. 

Steam. 

Length    of 
line  
Lenirth    of 
sill  tracks 
No.  of  cars 
No.  of  em 
ploy  es.. 
No.  of  pas 
senders. 
Total  cost. 

5,783.47 

8,123.02 
32,505 

70,764 

2,023,010,202 

$389,357,288.b7 

4,061.94 

5,661.44 
22,408 

44,314 

1,227.756,815 
$195,121,682.50 

914.25 

1,261.97 
2,896 

6,619 

134,905,994 
$35,830,949.63 

283.22 

488.31 
5,089 

11,873 

373,492.708 
$76,346,618.23 

524.06 

711.30 
2,113 

8,158 

286,854,685 
$82,058,038.51 

Commenting  on  this  table,  the  Street  Railway 
Journal  stated :  "  Perhaps  the  most  notable  feat- 
ure of  the  above  table  is  the  fact  that  in  1890  the 
railways  operated  by  animal  power  were  still 
far  ahead  of  all  others  as  regards  their  gross 
operating  statistics.  Rapid  as  was  the  advance 
of  electric  and  cable  roads  the  last  five  years 
of  the  decade,  only  a  beginning  was  made  in 
the  supplanting  of  the  older  form  of  motive  power. 
It  is  interesting  also  to  see  that  although  both  in 
number  and  length  of  lines  the  electric  railways 
have  far  outstripped  the  cable  railways,  the  latter, 
nevertheless,  represent  twice  as  great  an  invest- 
ment, operate  nearly  twice  the  number  of  cars  and 
do  a  business  more  than  twice  as  great.  These  rela- 
tive figures  point  clearly  to  the  far  greater  density 
of  traffic  upon  the  cable  lines  and  to  their  large 
first  cost.  The  cable  lines,  almost  without  exception, 
operate  in  the  denser  portions  of  the  large  cities, 
while  the  greater  part  of  the  electric  roads  are  either 
suburban  or  serve  the  people  of  comparatively  small 
cities." 


126      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

Further  tables,  too  large  to  be  reproduced  here, 
giving  in  detail  the  capital  stock,  dividends,  inter- 
est, receipts  and  expenditures,  taken  from  these 
census  reports,  will  be  found  on  page  25  of  the  Jan- 
uary number,  1892,  of  the  Street  Railway  Journal. 

The  table  on  the  following  page,  compiled  from 
various  sources,  gives  some  interesting  data  regard- 
ing some  of  the  principal  roads,  and  will  explain 
itself. 

As  far  as  operating  expenses  per  car  mile  are  con- 
cerned, both  cable  and  electric  railways  appear  to 
be  cheaper  than  those  operated  by  animal  power,  as 
shown  by  the  figures  from  the  U.  S.  Census;  the 
cable  roads  were  built  at  a  cost  per  mile  of  street 
occupied  of  over  seven  times  as  much  as  the  electric 
railways  were.  The  passenger  traffic  is  about  six 
times  as  great  upon  cable  lines  as  upon  electric  rail- 
ways. The  figures  correspond  with  the  generally 
accepted  fact  that  cable  railways  attain  their  great- 
est efficiency  where  an  extremely  heavy  traffic  is  to 
be  handled. 

In  the  statistics  for  the  six  roads  in  Massachu- 
setts, the  cost  of  equipment  was  about  half  that  of 
the  cost  of  construction,  and  therefore  about  one- 
third  of  the  total  cost  as  given  in  the  above  table. 
On  one  of  these  roads  the  cost  of  repairing  of  bed 
and  track  amounted  to  $340  per  mile,  and  on 
another  $441.  The  repairs  for  cars  and  electrical 
equipment  per  car  mile  on  one  of  the  roads  was  .278 
cent  per  car  mile.  The  average  car  miles  run  per 
day  on  the  six  roads  was  90.2. 

The  following  table  giving  the  receipts  and  opera- 
ting expenses  in  cents  per  car  mile,  and  the  ratio 


COST   OF   CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION. 


127 


Per 

to 

cent  of   operating  expenses 
receipts 

-* 

0 

1 

o 

CO 

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t- 

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a 

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CT5 

@ 

8 

Gross  receipts  in  dollars  

$ 

w 

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X>| 

Ditto 

,  iu  cents,  per  passenger  

% 

CO 

a 

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eo 

ei 

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Ditto 

in  cents,  per  car  mile 

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Total 

passengers  carried  

10 

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OS 

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Total 

length  of  track  in  miles  

w 

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Total 

cost,  including  equipment.. 

3 

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sf^S    «   5'"3  i5s 

8.  Census 

,  -a  o  Ivo  "7 

•  'Ipls 

-  «  tr«  * 

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1L2S      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


between  them,  for  a  number  of  different  roads,  was 
compiled  from  various  sources. 


M 

c  o> 

ss 

il 
WL 

a 

| 

o 

B 

1 

Operating  expenses  in 
cents  per  car  mile  

Net  earnings  in  cents  | 
per  car  mile  

Operating  expenses  in 
per  cent,  of  receipts.. 

U.  S.  Census  —  10  cable  roads;  maximum  

21.91 

"              minimum 

9  39 

"              mean  

14.12 

10  electric  roads  ;  maximum 

36.04 
8.34 
13  21 

"                  minimum  .. 

"                  mean  .. 

30  horse  car  lines;  maximum.. 

27.02 

"                          "                   minimum 

9.10 

"                           "                  mean  
West  End  line;  April  to  August,  1891;  electric 
*«                              "                     horse  .  . 
Pleasant  Valley  road.  1890 

"38.5" 

35.0 

27.56 
30.4 
22.4 
22.77 
14.37 

40.5 
31.5 
21.5 
37.0 

18.16 
21.13 
24.49 
20.26 
25.9 
17.6 
11.07 
11.06 

19.5 
22.0 
19.0 
12.0 

17.4 
10.5 
7.3 
4.5 
4.8 
11.7 
3.3 

21.0 

9.5 
2.5 
25.0 

55.0 
70.0 
73.0 
85.2 
78.8 
49.0 
77.0 

48.0 
70.0 
89.0 
32.5 
49.0 

35.0 

Six  electric  roads  in  Mass.,  one  year  
City  &  South  London  line;  first  6  mos.  1891.. 
Rochester  line,  June,  1891;  electric  

"                    "             horse 

Birmingham  (Eng.),  12  mouths;  electric  ac- 
cumulator 

Birmingham  (Eug.),  12  mouths;  steam  
horse  
"                        "              cable. 

St  Paul  &  Minn    11  lines  July. 

St.  Paul  &  Minn.,  lines  of  heaviest  traffic 
(9^  miles) 

Chicago  cable  lines 

9.65 

"        horse    "     

21.9 

Barking  (Eng.)  accumulator  line,  12  months. 
Budapest  conduit  line,  1890  

16  4 

24.0 

••                       "              1891,  August... 

37.0 

The  following  table  gives  the  cost  of  operating 
per  passenger  carried : 

Six  roads  in  Massachusetts 4.2  cents  per  passenger. 

10  cable  roads  in  U.  8 3.22 

10  electric  roads  in  U.  S 3.82 

30  horse  car  roads  in  U.  8 3.67 

City  &  South  London  road  (6  months) 3.08 

Pleasant  Valley  (Pittsburgh) 3.67 


COST   OF   CONSTRUCTION   AND   OPERATION.          129 

In  order  to  show  the  sub  division  of  the  expenses 
per  car  mile  the  following  table  has  been  calculated 
from  information  obtained  from  various  sources. 
Two  of  the  roads  are  of  the  West  End  Line,  Boston, 
one  an  electric  and  the  other  a  horse  car  line.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  expenses  for  car  repairs  are  about 
two  and  a  half  times  greater  in  the  case  of  the 
electric  line ;  but  this  difference  is  much  more  than 
made  up  in  the  saving  in  cost  of  motive  power. 
The  total  cost  per  car  mile  for  the  Rochester  line  is 
only  one  half  of  that  for  the  West  End  roads.  It 
should  be  -understood,  however,  that  a  strict  com- 
parison cannot  be  made,  as  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  those  who  give  the  figures  as  to 
what  heading  various  expenses  should  come  under. 
The  figures  given  must,  therefore,  be  understood 
to  be  only  approximate.  For  further  data  on  this 
subject,  see  the  article  by  Mr.  Badger  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter. 


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%  %  1 

Motive  power  

7.44=359/0 

10.74=44% 

1.54=  8% 

2.40=21.7% 

5.7=35% 

Conductors    and 

drivers  

7.14=34% 

8.22=34% 

6.80=34% 

5.66=51.2% 

2.9=18% 

Cur  repuirs. 

1.32=  6% 

.56=  2  % 

1.68=  8  % 

1.     =  9.0% 

6.6=40% 

Other  expenses.  .  . 

5.23 

4.97 

10.24 

2.01 

1.2 

Total  cost  per  car 

mile 

21.13  cents. 

24.49  cents. 

20.26  cents. 

11.07 

16.4  cents. 

130      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  following  table  gives  the  subdivision  of  the 
expenses  per  car  mile  for  the  Pleasant  Valley  Rail- 
way, of  Pittsburgh,  for  the  year  1890,  and  is  doubt- 
less quite  reliable : 

Conductors  and  motor  men per  mile,  6.80  cts.  —33.5% 

Motor  and  electric  repairs "  1.68  "    •=  8.3% 

Mechanical  repairs "  1.14  " 

Motive  power "  1.54  "    —  7.69/6 

Overhead  system "  0.45  " 

Maintenance  of  way "  1.08  "    =5.3% 

General  expense "  0.88  " 

Stables "  0.46  " 

Officers  and  salaries "  0.84  " 

Interests "  2.71  " 

Tolls "  0.25  " 

General  labor "  2.43  " 

Total  cost  per  car  mile 20.26  cts. 

The  following  table  gives  some  further  data  of 
interest  for  the  same  road,  and  is  taken  from  the 
annual  report : 

EARNINGS. 

Gross  receipts  for  the  year $331,900.80 

Total  passengers  carried  during  year,  6,612,913. 

EXPENDITURES. 

Pay  rolls $141,207.71 

Motor  and  car  supplies 13,688.35 

Fuel  and  light 8,628.45 

Engines  and  boilers 2,767.69 

Dynamos 1,724.27 

Overhead  system 1,713.33 

Roadway  and  stables 12,5] 5.72 

General  expense,  taxes,  bridge  tolls,  etc 33,268.12 

Interest  on  bonds 27,000.00 

$242,513.64 


Net  earnings $89,387.16 

Surplus  Jan  1,  1890 21,026.70 

Total $110,4:3.86 

Paid  dividend  No.  31,  July,  1890 39,000.00 

Surplus  Jan.  1,1891 $71,413.86 

The  subdivision  of  operating  expenses  of  the  West 
End  electric  and  horse  lines  (Boston)  for  one 
month  (June,  1891)  is  shown  in  the  following  table ; 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  mileage  of  the 
horse  lines  was  far  greater  than  that  of  the  electric 
lines: 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION   AND  OPERATION.         131 

OPERATING  KXPENSKS.                                                  Electric.  Horse 

G  em-nil $7,465  $.2,217 

Maintenance  of  track 3.334  9,023 

Maintenance  of  huildiiiirs 462  2,057 

Maintenance  of  cars,  etc 4,281  6.579 

Su  perm  temlence 2,397  9,22 ', 

Road  and  snow 1,463  4,355 

Injuries  and  damages 560  1.637 

Car  and  lamp  cleaners 1,000  3,045 

Conductors  and  drivers 26,132  88.573 


Total  motive  power $26,359  $116,210 

Total  operating  expenses $78,459  $263,825 

Net  earnings $80,529  $131,729 

A  report  of  the  Barking  Accumulator  Road  (Lon- 
don) for  the  year  1890  contains  the  following  fig- 
ures showing  the  subdivision  of  expenses : 

Waires  at  generating  station $3,280.  or  3.3  cts.  per  car  mile. 

Waires  of  drivers 2,910,  or  2.9 

Fuel 2,100,  or  2.1 

Oil 310,  or    .3 

Battery  depreciation  and  repairs 5,730,  or  5.7 

Motor                 "                          "         8fiO,  or    .9 

Other                "                         "         1.210,orl.2 


Total $16,400,  or  16.4  cts.  per  car  mile. 

The  Birmingham  (England)  Central  Tramway 
Company  employs  steam,  cable,  horse,  and  electric 
systems  for  operating  its  cars.  The  table  on  p.  132, 
taken  from  their  report  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
189-1,  will  afford  a  very  good  opportunity  to  make 
comparisons  of  these  systems.  The  city  has  over 
400,000  inhabitants,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  people 
use  the  cars  very  freely.  It  is  also  claimed  that 
mechanical  traction  has  been  employed  to  a  greater 
extent  in  that  city  than  in  any  other  in  Great 
Britian  and  Ireland. 

Commenting  on  this  table,  the  Street  Railway 
Journal  states:  "A  great  preponderance  will  be 
observed  in  the  steam  department  over  the  other 
three.  This  is,  of  course,  due  to  its  more  extensive 


132     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


EXPENSE  ACCOUNT. 


Steam 
Department. 

Horse 
Department. 

Cable 
Department. 

Electric 
Department. 

FOR  MOTIVE  POWER. 
Wages                            

$49,326.20 

$31,358.28 

$15,395.40 

$7  268  W 

Fuel                    

45,289.34 

6,997.26 

4,625  38 

Fora<re  and  bedding 

46,775.26 

Water  and  gas  

5,174,62 

804.76 

737.34 

190  10 

Veterinary  and  shoeing  

5,094.00 

2  053  60 

Stable  utensils 

563.72 

Stores            

8,328.08 

1.932.66 

2  032  90 

1,644.80 

954.80 

299  46 

260  52 

Repairs  —  Wages  

21.269.12 

772.90 

5  32 

Materials 

21,253.18 

9,284  48 

828  62 

Renewals.           

5,570.60 

Totals                 

$152,285.34 

$93,175  02 

$35,419.50 

$15  211  74 

CAR  REPAIRS. 
Wages                            

$4,256.08 

$3,640  74 

$1,774  56 

$1  689  56 

Materials 

3  542  68 

3  263  16 

6  991  38 

3  6')4  94 

Totals  

$7,798.76 

$6,903.90 

$8,765.94 

$5  384  50 

TRAFFIC  EXPENSES. 
Wages              

$32,267.70 

$13,549.64 

$11  100  14 

$3  000  62 

Water  and  gas. 

2,719.04 

442  00 

737  32 

190  14 

Stores                     

1,368.00 

430  84 

446  02 

7066 

Stationery  tickets,  etc. 

3,182.22 

1  289  80 

1  113  56 

361  5A 

Sundries  .           ..  

604.22 

553.82 

254  66 

114  60 

Totals  

$40,141.18 

$16,266.10 

$13  651.70 

|3  737  56 

PERMANENT  WAY  AND  BUILD- 
INGS. 
Wages       

$6,310.80 

$212.28 

589.48 

$•207  70 

Materials 

30,668  04 

1  542  20 

1  243  42 

172  64 

Totals 

$36,978  84 

$1  754  48 

$1  832  90 

$380  34 

To  GENERAL  CHARGES. 
Stationery  and  incidentals.  . 
Salaries 

$1,815.42 
2,381.16 

$762.40 
1  249  10 

$510.62 
1,040.58 

$195.98 
279  82 

Compensation  

3,870.14 

363.92 

155.44 

213.56 

Rates,  taxes  and  insurance 
Professional  charges  

8,626.56 
7,258.66 

2,551.08 
1,010.34 

3,769.50 
678.82 

1,423.06 
528.12 

Sundries 

1,263  92 

798  62 

698  46 

309  12 

Totals. 

$25,215  86 

$6  735  46 

$6  853  42 

$2  049  66 

No  miles  run. 

1  184  401 

131  528* 

522  876 

138  396 

Passengers  carried 

14  242  827 

506,196t 
1  114  3H8* 

5  241,362 

1,144,718 

2,638,028t 

*  Street  cars, 
t  Omnibuses. 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.         133 

use  over  the  cable,  horse,  or  electric  systems.  The 
electric  department  makes  a  very  good  showing, 
but  is  defective,  as  will  be  explained  later.  The 
cable  division,  in  our  opinion,  makes  a  much  better 
showing  than  its  associates,  considering  the  fact  that 
but  twenty  14- foot  cars  are  operated  in  this  depart- 
ment. The  horse  department  is  almost  monopolized 
by  the  'buses,  but  the  cars  make  a  good  showing. 
On  the  whole,  the  report  appears  satisfactory.  The 
net  profits,  after  deducting  the  expenses  from  the 
gross  receipts,  show  almost  4fd.  or  about  nine  and 
a  half  cents,  in  the  steam  department,  lid.  in  the 
horse  department,  12£d.  in  the  cable  department, 
and  lO|d.  in  the  electric  department.  The  cost  to 
operate  the  steam  division  was  twenty -two  cents, 
the  horse  division  nineteen  cents,  the  cable  divis- 
ion twelve  cents,  and  the  electric  division  nineteen 
and  a  half  cents.  However,  for  a  city  of  the  size  of 
Birmingham  more  than  24,381,323  passengers  should 
have  been  carried  in  one  year,  especially  since  rapid 
transit  is  employed  here  to  a  greater  extent  than  in 
any  other  city  in  Europe.  The  cable  division  of  the 
Birmingham  company  has  been  a  most  pronounced 
success,  as  is  always  the  case  with  the  cable  system 
where  it  is  given  a  fair  trial.  The  writer  was 
informed,  by  one  of  the  company's  engineers,  that 
the  net  profits  were  already  very  large,  and  to 
materially  increase  them  the  fares  were  to  be 
reduced,  and  a  great  increase  for  the  future  was 
confidently  expected.  Twenty  14-foot  cars,  mounted 
on  bogie  trucks,  are  run  by  cable  power,  and  con- 
sidering that  they  carried  over  5.000,000  passengers 
during  the  last  year  they  may  be  deemed  most  sat- 


134     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

isfactory.  It  is  surprising,  however,  that  the  profits 
are  so  large,  considering  the  service  given.  The 
cars  are  very  dirty,  and  we  are  quite  sure  that  they 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  America.  The  conductors 
and  gripmen,  or  drivers,  as  they  are  called  in  Bir- 
mingham, look  quite  as  shabby  as  the  cars.  They 
stand  in  strong  contrast  to  the  well-uniformed  men 
in  the  cable  service  at  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco,  and 
New  York.  The  steam  and  electric  cars  are  much 
cleaner,  and  as  it  is  with  the  latter  we  have  to  deal, 
we  shall  proceed  to  do  so  immediately. 

"  The  electrical  division  using  storage  batteries  was 
opened  on  July  16,  1890,  and  inspected  by  the  Board 
of  Trade  July  24  of  the  same  year.  The  latter 
approved  it,  and  from  the  very  first  it  has  been  well 
received  by  the  public,  and  so  much  so  that  the  run- 
ning of  additional  cars  is  contemplated.  But  let  it 
be  understood  from  the  first  that  the  road  is  an 
experimental  one,  like  most  storage  battery  roads 
now  in  existence,  and  it  is  upon  the  economical 
running  of  the  road  in  the  future  more  than  upon 
its  past  record  that  its  adoption  depends.  We  were 
told  by  a  person  who  is  an  authority,  that  the  road 
was  reported  to  have  earned  $15,000  clear  profit,  but 
in  reality  there  was  a  deficit  of  $5,000,  because  the 
storage  battery  account  was  not  handed  in,  and,  as 
a  great  many  no  doubt  know,  this  is  one  of  the 
greatest  items  of  expense  attending  a  storage  bat- 
tery road." 

A  report  on  the  two-mile  open  conduit  at  Black- 
pool, England,  gives  the  following  figures.  There 
are  12  cars  in  operation,  which  have  run  98,000  car 
miles  and  carried  9,034  passengers  during  the  year, 


COST   OP   CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.         135 

which  is  an  increase  of  G  and  1 5  per  cent,  respect- 
ively. The  dividend  declared  was  7i  per  cent.  The 
conduit  repairs  for  one  year  amounted  to  £144,  or 
£72  per  mile.  The  motor  and  car  repair  amounted 
to  £192,  or  £16  per  car,  which  is  about  five  per  cent, 
of  their  original  total  cost,  and  about  13£  per  cent, 
of  the  original  cost  of  the  complete  electrical  appa- 
ratus. 

A  report  on  the  Rochester  railroad  for  the  middle 
of  this  year  states  that  they  operated  44  vestibule 
electric  cars  18  feet  long;  that  the  gross  receipts 
were  23.05  cents  per  car  mile  for  a  mileage  of  159,- 
567.  The  cost  of  operation  of  these  cars  for  one 
month  was  $18,332,  and  the  receipts  were  $37,053, 
leaving  a  net  profit  of  $18,721.  The  division  of 
expenses  will  be  found  in  one  of  the  above  tables. 

The  average  cost  of  haulage  in  London  for  street 
cars  and  omnibuses  is  said  to  be  about  20  cents  per 
car  mile,  while  the  cost  of  horse  haulage  in  that 
city  is  given  as  12  cents  per  car  mile. 

In  an  article  by  Mr.  Field,  he  states  that  the  cost 
of  generating  power  for  16  and  18-foot  cars  is  from 
three  to  five  cents  per  car  mile  for  expense  at  gen- 
erating station.  For  33- foot  cars,  or  trailers,  he 
assumes  that  the  cost  will  be  50  per  cent.  more. 

In  a  report  of  some  figures  from  six  electric  street 
railways  in  different  parts  of  various  States,  in 
which  the  Thomson-Houston  system  is  used,  it  is 
stated  that  the  average  amount  of  coal  used  per 
horse-power  hour  at  the  power  station  is  about  five 
pounds;  while  the  average  amount  used  per  car 
mile  on  the  road,  computed  from  a  mileage  of  over 
1,200,000  miles,  is  about  eight  pounds,  or  over  50  per 


134     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

isfactory.  It  is  surprising,  however,  that  the  profits 
are  so  large,  considering  the  service  given.  The 
cars  are  very  dirty,  and  we  are  quite  sure  that  they 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  America.  The  conductors 
and  griprnen,  or  drivers,  as  they  are  called  in  Bir- 
mingham, look  quite  as  shabby  as  the  cars.  They 
stand  in  strong  contrast  to  the  well-uniformed  men 
in  the  cable  service  at  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco,  and 
New  York.  The  steam  and  electric  cars  are  much 
cleaner,  and  as  it  is  with  the  latter  we  have  to  deal, 
we  shall  proceed  to  do  so  immediately. 

"  The  electrical  division  using  storage  batteries  was 
opened  on  July  16,  1890,  and  inspected  by  the  Board 
of  Trade  July  24  of  the  same  year.  The  latter 
approved  it,  and  from  the  very  first  it  has  been  well 
received  by  the  public,  and  so  much  so  that  the  run- 
ning of  additional  cars  is  contemplated.  But  let  it 
be  understood  from  the  first  that  the  road  is  an 
experimental  one,  like  most  storage  battery  roads 
now  in  existence,  and  it  is  upon  the  economical 
running  of  the  road  in  the  future  more  than  upon 
its  past  record  that  its  adoption  depends.  We  were 
told  by  a  person  who  is  an  authority,  that  the  road 
was  reported  to  have  earned  $15,000  clear  profit,  but 
in  reality  there  was  a  deficit  of  $5,000,  because  the 
storage  battery  account  was  not  handed  in,  and,  as 
a  great  many  no  doubt  know,  this  is  one  of  the 
greatest  items  of  expense  attending  a  storage  bat- 
tery road." 

A  report  on  the  two-mile  open  conduit  at  Black- 
pool, England,  gives  the  following  figures.  There 
are  12  cars  in  operation,  which  have  run  98,000  car 
miles  and  carried  9,034  passengers  during  the  year, 


COST   OF   CONSTRUCTION  AND   OPERATION.         135 

which  is  an  increase  of  C  and  15  per  cent,  respect- 
ively. The  dividend  declared  was  7?  per  cent.  The 
conduit  repairs  for  one  year  amounted  to  £144,  or 
£72  per  mile.  The  motor  and  car  repair  amounted 
to  £192,  or  £16  per  car,  which  is  about  five  per  cent, 
of  their  original  total  cost,  and  about  13?  per  cent, 
of  the  original  cost  of  the  complete  electrical  appa- 
ratus. 

A  report  on  the  Rochester  railroad  for  the  middle 
of  this  year  states  that  they  operated  44  vestibule 
electric  cars  18  feet  long;  that  the  gross  receipts 
were  23.05  cents  per  car  mile  for  a  mileage  of  159,- 
567.  The  cost  of  operation  of  these  cars  for  one 
month  was  $18,332,  and  the  receipts  were  $37,053, 
leaving  a  net  profit  of  $18,721.  The  division  of 
expenses  will  be  found  in  one  of  the  above  tables. 

The  average  cost  of  haulage  in  London  for  street 
cars  and  omnibuses  is  said  to  be  about  20  cents  per 
car  mile,  while  the  cost  of  horse  haulage  in  that 
city  is  given  as  12  cents  per  car  mile. 

In  an  article  by  Mr.  Field,  he  states  that  the  cost 
of  generating  power  for  16  and  18-foot  cars  is  from 
three  to  five  cents  per  car  mile  for  expense  at  gen- 
erating station.  For  33- foot  cars,  or  trailers,  he 
assumes  that  the  cost  will  be  50  per  cent.  more. 

In  a  report  of  some  figures  from  six  electric  street 
railways  in  different  parts  of  various  States,  in 
which  the  Thomson-Houston  system  is  used,  it  is 
stated  that  the  average  amount  of  coal  used  per 
horse-power  hour  at  the  power  station  is  about  five 
pounds;  while  the  average  amount  used  per  car 
mile  on  the  road,  computed  from  a  mileage  of  over 
1,200,000  miles,  is  about  eight  pounds,  or  over  50  per 


136      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

cent,  more  than  the  first  quantity.  It  is  also  found 
from  the  figures  obtained  from  these  roads  that  the 
average  cost  of  coal  at  the  power  station  is  $3  per 
ton.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  cost  of  fuel  per 
(horse-power  hour  at  the  station  and  per  car  mile  on 
Jthe  road  are  respectively  .75  and  1.02  cents. 

CHAPTER  V. 

OVERHEAD  WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS. 

Under  this  heading  will  be  included  what  is 
usually  known  as  the  overhead  trolley  system.  The 
general  construction  is  so  well  known  that  no 
description  need  be  given  here.  In  general  the  cur- 
rent is  led  from  the  power  station  to  different  por- 
tions of  the  line  by  feeders,  which  are  in. some  cases 
underground,  but  more  generally  overhead.  The 
feeders  are  connected  at  various  points  with  the 
trolley  wire,  which  is  usually  in  separate  sections. 
From  this  the  current  is  taken  by  the  trolley  on  the 
roof  of  the  car,  passes  through  the  motors,  thence 
to  the  iron  framework  of  the  car,  and  from  there  to 
the  track,  returning  to  the  station  either  through 
the  track  or  through  the  ground. 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  roads  are  run  by 
this  system,  and  it  may  be  said  that  this  is  the  only 
one  which  is  at  present  in  extended  use.  Its  success 
is  already  far  beyond  dispute,  as  the  rapid  intro- 
duction of  the  system  shows. 

In  many  cities  objections  have  been  raised  to  this 
system,  chiefly  by  the  municipal  authorities.  What 
these  objections  are,  and  whether  they  are  valid  or 


OVERHEAD  WIRE  SURFACE   RAILWAYS.  137 

not  is  best  seen  by  the  answers  which  were  pub- 
lished by  a  number  of  writers,  of  which  we  give 
here  a  few  of  the  most  important. 

Regarding  the  overhead  system,  Mr.  F.  H.  Monks 
writes  as  follows :  "  The  only  system  for  the  opera- 
tion of  street  cars  by  electricity  which  has,  up  to 
date,  met  with  commercial  success  is  the  overhead 
wire  system,  and,  therefore,  the  application  of  elec- 
tricity as  a  motive  force  at  present  must  be  confined 
practically  to  that  system.  The  extension  of  the 
overhead  system  in  the  large  cities  of  the  country 
has  undeniably  been  greatly  checked  by  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  municipal  authorities  to  the  erection  of 
poles,  the  stringing  of  wires,  the  fear  that  loss  of 
life  or  injury  to  persons  would  ensue  as  an  inevita- 
ble result  of  the  operation  of  cars  by  electricity,  and 
the  belief  that  any  line  so  operated  would  of  neces- 
sity succumb  to  the  rigors  of  a  Northern  winter. 
Notwithstanding  such  opposition,  the  number  of 
roads  operated  by  the  overhead  wire  system  has 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  and  after  the  people 
have  had  an  opportunity  to  learn  to  their  complete 
satisfaction  that  the  poles  and  wires,  though  cer- 
tainly objectionable,  are  yet  justifiable  under  the 
circumsta.nces,  that  absolutely  no  one  is  killed  by 
the  electrical  current  and  that  no  snow  storm,  how- 
ever severe,  has  any  terrors  for  the  managers  of  the 
line,  they  clamor  for  the  rapid  extension  of  the  sys- 
tem, as  they  certainly  are  doing  in  Boston  to-day. 
The  progress  of  invention  respecting  the  develop- 
ment of  the  overhead  system  has  been  marvelous, 
and  the  great  danger  has  been  the  possibility  of 
getting  too  far  committed  to  present  methods  and 


138     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

appliances  to  prevent  the  acquirement  of  the 
improved  devices,  which  are  coming  into  sight 
almost  daily.  These  facts  have  unquestionably 
acted  as  a  deterrent  with  street  railway  managers 
everywhere  to  the  even  more  rapid  extension  of  the 
overhead  system.  I  make  no  doubt  but  that  within 
a  few  months  matters  of  detail  respecting  this  sys- 
tem will  be  so  generally  regarded  as  settled  that  its 
extension  will  be  more  rapid  than  in  the  past." 

An  editorial  in  the  New  York  Tribune,  referring 
to  the  overhead  trolley  system,  says :  "  It  is  danger- 
ous, inefficient,  destructive,  and  unsightly.  That  the 
overhead  wires  are  destructive,  firemen  have 
repeatedly  declared,  and  proven  to  the  dismay  of 
numerous  owners  and  tenants  of  burning  buildings. 
Under  perfectly  favorable  conditions,  it  does 
undoubtedly  do  its  work  reasonably  well,  but  it  is 
peculiarly  liable  to  break  down  just  when  the  public 
need  of  it  is  greatest.  An  ice  storm  is  always 
expected  to  interrupt  its  course,  even  if  it  does  not 
bring  the  wires  in  a  tangle  to  the  ground.  The 
experience  of  Boston  in  this  particular  has  been 
exceptionally  uncomfortable  and  irritating,  but  the 
same  inherent  defect  has  been  experienced  else- 
where. Lastly ,  the  existence  of  overhead  wires  carry- 
ing a  current  of  electricity  capable  of  operating  a 
line  of  street  cars  is,  and  in  the  end  of  the  case  must 
be,  a  constant  menace  to  public  safety  and  a  com- 
mon cause  of  fatalities.  In  cities  the  trolley  system 
is  intolerable." 

To  this  editorial,  Mr.  S.  J.  MacFarren  published  a 
reply,  of  which  the  following  abstract  is  taken.  He 
states  that  recently  printed  replies  from  the  mayors 


OVERHEAD  WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  139 

of  nearly  60  cities  and  towns  possessing  electric 
traction  showed  that  nine-tenths  praised  the  trolley 
rapid  transit  system  with  more  or  less  enthusiasm, 
and  not  one  condemned  it.  (See  Electrical  World, 
Nov.,  1890).  Many  of  these  officials  denied  explicitly 
that  the  trolley  system  is  considered  dangerous  by 
their  people.  He  states  that  electric  railway  wires 
have  never  killed  or  maimed  a  human  being.  He 
claims  that  the  firemen's  complaint  against  over- 
head wires  was  generally,  if  not  invariably,  against 
light  and  telephone  wires,  which  are  strung  by  the 
hundreds  over  the  sidewalks  where  fire  ladders  are 
to  be  hoisted,  while  electric  railway  wires  need  be 
but  two,  and  those  in  the  middle  of  the  street. 
Regarding  the  stoppages  in  storms,  he  claims  that 
the  electric  railway  motor  is  immensely  superior  to 
animal  traction  in  this  emergency,  and  when  prop- 
erly equipped  and  managed,  is  equal  to  the  cable. 

Regarding  the  question  of  the  danger  of  the  over- 
head system,  Mr.  F.  L.  Pope  states:  "With  a  view 
of  getting  at  the  actual  facts  in  the  case,  the  Boston 
Advertiser,  a  few  months  ago,  sent  out  a  circular 
letter  asking  for  information  from  every  city  in 
which  electric  railways  are  in  actual  operation, 
from  Portland,  Me.,  to  Galveston,  Tex.  It  was 
asked  what  system  was  used  in  each  place ;  whether 
there  had  ever  been  loss  of  life  or  injury  from  the 
wires ;  whether  there  was  any  serious  objection  on 
the  part  of  the  public  to  overhead  wires,  and  what 
was  the  general  opinion  in  the  locality  as  to  the 
effect  of  the  introduction  of  electricity  upon  the 
street  railway  service.  Replies  were  published  from 
64  cities  and  towns.  All  but  four  of  them  were 


140     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

favorable.  Not  one  solitary  instance  of  accident  or 
serious  injury  from  electric  currents  was  reported. 
One  of  the  objecting  places  was  Newport,  R.  I., 
where  it  seems  the  "upper  ten"  strenuously  opposed 
the  introduction  of  anything  that  would  popularize 
riding  on  the  streets. 

"Many  persons  are  alarmed  at  the  vivid  flashes 
of  light  which  are  often  seen  at  night  beneath  the 
wheels  of  an  electric  car,  and  at  the  point  of  con- 
tact of  the  trolley  wheel  with  the  overhead  wire, 
and  are  under  the  impression  that  they  must  indi- 
cate a  very  dangerous  electric  pressure.  Such,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case.  In  an  electro-plating  estab- 
lishment at  Ansonia,  Conn.,  I  once  saw  a  workman 
accidentally  set  a  tin  pail  filled  with  water  upon  a 
pair  of  electric  conductors  near  the  dynamo.  The 
pail  instantly  disappeared,  being  not  merely  melted, 
but  being  converted  into  metallic  vapor,  with  a  ter- 
rific flash  which  illuminated  the  whole  building 
with  a  dazzling  and  instantaneous  radiance;  yet 
the  current  which  produced  this  startling  phenome- 
non was  of  such  low  pressure  that  it  was  impossible 
to  detect  its  presence  by  the  sense  of  touch,  even  by 
applying  the  hands  directly  to  the  conductors. 

"An  extraordinary  amount  of  nonsense  has  been 
printed  and  talked  in  respect  to  the  alleged  dangers 
of  both  electric  light  and  railway  wires.  The  public 
have  been  needlessly  alarmed  by  the  exaggerated 
statements  of  interested  parties,  but,  nevertheless, 
the  danger  is  so  small,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  the 
actual  figures  are  almost  astonishing.  Most  of  the 
accidents  which  have  been  reported  occurred  in 
New  York  city.  Yet  the  statistics  show  that  in 


OVERHEAD   WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  141 

1889,  out  of  1,467  deaths  in  New  York  city  by  acci- 
dents of  various  sorts,  only  nine  were  due  to  elec- 
tricity, a  considerably  less  number  than  were  killed 
by  being  run  over  by  horse  cars.  Not  a  single  death 
was  recorded  in  Boston,  although  there  are  perhaps 
more  wires  there  in  proportion  to  the  population 
than  in  NewT  York.  There  are  in  the  six  New  Eng- 
land States  nearly  140  arc  light  stations,  burning 
over  20,000  arc  lamps  and  distributing  30,000  horse- 
power of  electricity  through  the  streets  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  and  towns.  During  the  last  ten  years,  so 
far  as  I  can  ascertain,  there  have  been  but  five 
deaths  from  electricity ;  four  of  these  were  employes 
of  the  lighting  companies,  and  one  was  a  careless 
boy  who  climbed  upon  a  shed  and  took  hold  of  a 
wire.  During  the  same  ten  years  the  steam  rail- 
roads of  New  England  have  killed  2,339  employes 
and  2,902  other  persons;  5,241  against  5.  Not  only 
is  electrical  power  far  less  dangerous  than  the  same 
quantity  of  power  used  in  other  industries,  but  it  is 
relatively  safer,  as  the  few  accidents  that  do  occur 
are  among  the  employes.  These  remarks  refer  to 
electric  wires  in  general.  Now  as  to  electric  railway 
wires  : 

"  I  believe  that  it  is  an  incontestable  fact  that  not 
one  single  man,  woman,  or  child  has  ever  been 
killed  or  even  seriously  injured  by  a  500-volt  cur- 
rent, which  is  the  highest  pressure  ever  permitted 
upon  electric  railway  wires.  Every  alleged  case  of 
accident  by  railway  wires  has,  upon  investigation, 
proved  to  be  either  without  foundation,  or  to  have 
been  caused  by  an  electric  light  current.  When  we 
consider  that  shocks  have  been  experienced  by 


142      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

men,  women,  and  children,  persons  of  all  ages  and 
all  sorts  of  physical  condition,  sometimes  for  a 
period  of  several  minutes,  experience  seems  to  war- 
rant the  positive  assertion  that  the  electric  railway 
current  is  not  dangerous  to  human  life,  and  that  we 
may  dismiss  that  question  from  further  considera- 
tion." 

On  the  same  subject  Mr.  Griffin  states:  "On  this 
point  I  think  the  public  are  now  well  satisfied. 
While  there  are  few  employes  on  any  of  the  roads 
now  in  operation  who  have  not  had  the  full  shock 
of  500  volts  repeatedly,  there  is  not  a  single  instance 
of  any  of  the  patrons  of  these  roads  who  have  been 
killed  or  even  seriously  injured  by  the  500-volt  cur- 
rent from  the  overhead  wire.  Electric  cars  will  run 
over  and  kill  the  careless  pedestrian  or  the  drunken 
passenger  who  falls  from  the  platform  in  front  of 
the  wheels,  as  will  the  horse  car,  but  no  passenger 
or  pedestrian  has  ever  been  killed  by  the  trolley 
wire,  and  statistics  do  not  show  that  the  electric  car 
is  in  any  respect  any  more  dangerous  to  life  than 
the  horse  car  or  cable  car.  Last  year  (1890)  the 
West  End  street  railway  system  of  Boston  carried 
114,853,081  passengers,  and  all  the  steam  railroads 
of  the  whole  State  of  Massachusetts  only  carried 
98,843,712.  The  West  End  system  killed  15  passen- 
gers and  employes,  and  the  steam  roads  killed  325. 
Of  the  15  fatal  accidents  on  the  West  End  system, 
five  were  attributed  to  electric  cars  and  10  to  horse 
cars.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  narrow  and 
crooked  streets  of  Boston  and  the  enormous  traffic 
of  the  West  End  system  are  conditions  peculiarly 
conducive  to  accidents. 


OVERHEAD  WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  143 

"In  the  year  1889  nine  human  beings  were  killed 
by  the  arc  light  wires  in  New  York  city  (2,500 
volts),  and  the  authorities  were  roused  to  such  a 
pitch  of  frenzy  that  the  poles  were  chopped  down 
and  a  large  part  of  the  city  left  in  darkness.  Yefc, 
with  perhaps  one  exception,  all  of  the  victims  were 
employes  of  the  lighting  companies,  and  suffered 
because  of  failure  to  observe  proper  and  well-known 
precautions.  In  the  same  year  twelve  persons  were 
asphyxiated  by  gas  and  over  thirty  were  killed  by 
signs  and  other  objects  falling  on  their  heads  as 
they  walked  peacefully  along  the  streets.  In  time 
we  are  able  to  estimate  every  danger  relatively,  but 
in  the  beginning,  unknown  dangers,  those  to  which 
we  are  not  accustomed,  are  greatly  exaggerated." 

In  a  compilation  of  data  obtained  from  a  number 
of  companies,  in  answer  to  a  set  of  questions,  Mr. 
Mansfield  states :  "  I  am  happy  to  state  that  under 
this  heading  not  one  road  reports  as  killed  or  even 
seriously  injured  an  employe  or  passenger  by  the 
electric  current,  or  falling  trolley  or  span  wire. 
Several  report  employes  as  receiving  shocks,  and 
one  of  a  boy  throwing  a  wire  over  the  trolley  wire 
and  receiving  the  full  potential  of  the  current. 
None,  however,  were  seriously  injured.  Several 
accidents  are  reported  of  collision  and  running 
over,  but  these  cannot  be  entirely  avoided,  and  are 
inherent  in  any  system." 

Descriptive. 

A  very  fair  idea  of  some  of  the  larger  overhead 
wire  roads  in  operation  may  be  had  from  the  follow- 
ing extracts,  taken  from  the  published  descriptions 


144     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

of  some  of  the  largest  and  most  typical  plants. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  full  and  reliable 
descriptions,  some  of  these  are  necessarily  very 
incomplete. 

West  End  Railway,  Boston.— This  line  comprises 
the  street  railways  of  the  city  of  Boston,  and  is  run 
partially  by  horse  and  partially  by  electricity,  using 
the  overhead  system.  It  is  the  largest  electric  rail- 
way plant  in  the  world.  The  mileage  of  the  electric 
system  was  about  one-quarter  of  the  whole  mileage. 
On  September  30,  1891,  they  owned  244.47  miles 
of  track  and  leased  14.63  miles,  a  total  of  about  260 
miles;  of  this  81.234  is  equipped  with  electric  over- 
head system,  18.907  is  partially  equipped.  The  aver- 
age receipts  per  passenger  were  for  both  horse  and 
electric  lines  4.938  cents.  Total  mileage  of  the  elec- 
tric cars  was  4,588,146  car  miles,  or  26.27  per  cent,  of 
the  whole,  while  the  horse  cars  ran  12,874,426  miles, 
or  73.73  per  cent.  They  contemplate  converting  the 
whole  road  into  an  electric  one  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  to  get  the  cost  of  transportation  down  to  16  or  17 
cents  a  car  mile.  The  cost  of  running  in  the  dense 
parts  of  the  city  is  considerably  greater  on  account 
of  the  slow  speed.  In  these  parts  they  estimate  that 
the  average  speed  is  from  one  to  two  miles  an  hour. 
Further  statistics  will  be  found  tabulated,  together 
with  those  of  other  roads,  under  the  heading  of  cost 
of  construction  and  operation. 

Minneapolis  Street  Railway. — This  is  claimed  to 
be  one  of  the  most  complete  and  extensive  systems 
in  operation.  The  novelty  of  the  system  employed 
throughout  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  not  a  wire 
in  sight  in  the  heart  of  the  city  except  the  overhead 


OVERHEAD   WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  145 

trolley  wire.  The  feeders,  mains  and  track  feeders 
are  contained  in  a  conduit  underground,  the  trolley 
wire  connecting  with  the  feeders  by  means  of  a  sub- 
feeder  through  the  hollow  iron  supporting  poles. 
The  conduit  is  located  between  •  the  tracks,  and  is 
built  as  follows :  A  two-inch  plank,  first  treated  by 
boiling  in  fernoline,  is  used  for  constructing  a  long 
trough  of  the  desired  size.  This  trough  is  so  nailed 
together  as  to  be  continuous,  and  without  joints 
from  manhole  to  manhole,  a  distance  of  408  feet. 
The  trough  is  placed  below  the  surface  at  such  a 
depth  that  the  top  is  six  inches  below  the  paving 
blocks.  The  conduit  proper  consists  of  a  number  of 
heavy  paper  tubes  of  the  Interior  Conduit  and  Insu- 
lation Company's  make.  The  tubes  employed  are 
one  inch  or  one  inch  and  a  quarter  inside  diameter, 
laid  in  the  trough  in  ten-foot  lengths,  and  separated 
from  each  other  and  the  sides  and  the  bottom  of  the 
trough  by  rings  or  spacers.  The  tubes  are  made 
continuous  from  manhole  to  manhole  by  use  of  a 
telescopic  joint.  After  the  tubes  have  been  put  in 
place,  pitch  is  poured  in,  filling  the  interstices,  and 
leaving  the  tubes  with  a  solid  insulating  filling, 
impervious  to  moisture,  around  them. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  system  is  the  first  installa- 
tion of  underground  conductors  ever  made  in  which 
copper  wires  were  drawn  into  a  conduit  without  other 
insulation  than  the  conduit  itself.  There  is  at  the 
present  time  about  60  miles  of  bare  copper  cable 
resting  in  the  conduits,  varying  in  size  from  100,000 
to  500,000  centimetres.  The  insulation  resistance  on 
the  entire  amount  of  tubing  with  overhead  trolley 
and  outlying  feeders,  as  shown  by  a  test,  is  1,081,- 


146  RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

147  ohms.     Some  recent  tests  of  the  feeders  in  the 
conduits  show  an  insulation  resistance  as  follows: 
Feeder,  a,  37,719,598  ohms;  b,  18,647,000;  c,  2,251,- 
000;  d,  10,298,000;  e,  1,791,000;  /,  1,815,000;  g,  1,488,- 

,000. 

The  population  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  is 
350,000.  There  is  not  a  horse  car  in  either  city. 
Minneapolis  has  120  miles,  with  posts  in  the  middle 
of  the  streets,  with  arms  extending  over  the  track 
on  either  side.  St.  Paul  has  90  miles,  75  of  which 
are  electric  and  15  cable.  The  cable  will  be  kept 
only  for  a  portion  which  has  a  grade  of  17  per  cent. 
They  use  Lima  oil  for  fuel,  at  a  cost  of  $1  a  bar- 
rel. Three  barrels  are  said  to  be  the  equivalent 
of  a  ton  of  coal.  It  is  said  to  cost  them  $1  a 
day  for  power  for  an  electric  car  for  a  system 
of  150  cars;  horses  used  to  cost  them  $3.85  to  $4 
a  day  per  car,  even  with  the  low  priced  grain. 
The  principal  item  of  repairs  is  the  burning  out 
of  the  armatures.  The  line  of  their  heaviest  travel, 
9i  miles  long,  between  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul, 
shows  a  cost  of  operating  of  only  35  per  cent,  of 
the  receipts. 

Federal  Street  and  Pleasant  Valley  Passenger 
Railway  (Pittsburgh). — Mr.  D.  F.  Henry  gives  the 
following  description,  presumably  for  the  year  1890 : 
"There  are  about  58,000  feet,  or  11  miles,  of  track 
laid  with  the  improved  Johnson  girder  rail;  31,000 
feet,  or  about  six  miles,  were  relaid  and  completed 
with  tram  rail;  there  are  now  about  18  miles  of 
single  track.  The  large  substantial  fireproof  power 
station  is  equipped  with  two  Hazelton  tripod  boilers, 
of  500  horse-power  each;  also  a  battery  of  two  hori- 


OVERHEAD   WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  147 

zontal  tubular  boilers,  of  125  horse-power  each; 
total,  1,250  horse-power,  with  the  Roney  patent 
smokeless  stokers,  tanks,  coal  and  ash  conveyers, 
steam  pumps,  heaters,  and  purifiers;  an  artesian 
water  well,  with  steam  pump ;  two  large  tanks  for 
a  water  reserve  in  case  of  accident,  or  shutting  off 
the  city  water  supply;  also  a  fire  protection.  The 
coal  bins  have  a  capacity  of  1,000  tons,  or  40  days' 
supply. 

"There  are  three  Buckeye  engines,  two  of  400 
horse-power  each,  and  one  of  200  horse-power ;  total, 
1,000  horse-power;  five  Edison  dynamos,  of  80,000 
watts  each,  or  combined,  535  electric  horse-power; 
three  Thomson-Houston  dynamos,  of  60,000  watts 
each,  or  combined  240  electric  horse-power,  making 
a  total  of  775  electric  horse-power;  all  connected 
with  main  shaft,  with  idle  pulleys  thereon  to  attach 
two  additional  dynamos  of  80,000  watts  each,  which 
would  balance  the  engine  capacity.  There  would  be 
still  in  reserve  250  horse-power  boiler  capacity. 
They  have  contracted  for  a  250  horse-power  engine, 
also  dynamo  of  equal  capacity.  They  will  have 
ample  power,  with  a  reserve  both  in  steam  and  elec- 
tricity, for  all  requirements  of  the  near  future.  In 
the  power  station  there  still  remains  room  enough 
for  considerable  power  for  future  extensions. 

"They  have  remodeled  the  buildings  into  repair 
shops,  with  suitable  examining  pits ;  machine  shops, 
with  engine,  elevator,  lathes,  drill  presses,  planers, 
milling  and  boring  machines,  emery  and  grinding 
wheels,  and  blacksmith  forges;  electric  shops,  with 
lathes,  dryers,  and  insulating  apparatus  for  the 
building  of  new  car  motors,  and  station  equipments 


148      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

and  their  repair;  a  carpenter  or  car  shop,  with 
engine,  planers,  lathes,  saws,  boring  machines,  for 
building  new  or  altering  cars  suitable  for  electric 
service;  a  complete  stable  outfit,  with  first-class 
horses,  harness,  wagons  for  hauling  coal  and  other 
supplies,  track  sweeper,  water  carts,  etc. 

"The  car  house  covers  a  space  of  140  by  145  feet, 
having  a  capacity  for  75  cars.  This  will  afford  am- 
ple storage  room  for  all  cars  on  the  main  line,  as 
well  as  all  not  in  daily  use  on  all  the  other  divisions. 

"  Upon  the  completion  of  the  branches  they  expect 
to  have  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  valuable 
street  railway  properties  in  the  country,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  complete  electric  roads  in  all  its 
details  in  the  world.  They  have  now  50  motor  cars, 
25  trail  cars,  6  snow  plows,  5  salt  cars,  1  snow 
sweeper,  a  stone  crusher,  engine  and  boiler,  ena- 
bling them  to  ballast  the  suburban  roads  at  the 
least  possible  expense.  They  claim  to  have  one  of 
the  most  difficult  roads  to  operate  in  existence,  with 
streets  having  over  one  hundred  curves,  many  of 
which  have  a  stort  radius,  and  with  heavy  grades, 
leaving  but  little  straight  and  level  roadway. 

"In  the  twelve  months  that  the  road  has  been  in 
operation,  the  total  time  lost  was  but  20  hours,  3  of 
which  was  on  account  of  the  shutting  off  of  the 
water  supply  to  the  boilers,  and  3  hours  from 
engine  and  line  troubles.  The  other  12  hours  was 
caused  by  two  of  the  most  severe  snow  storms  expe- 
rienced for  many  years.  The  first  snow  fall  was  16 
inches  and  the  last  10  inches.  With  the  narrow 
streets  and  sharp  curves,  the  sweeper  piled  the  snow 
on  either  side  of  the  track  to  the  height  of  from  4  to 


OVERHEAD   WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  149 

6  feet ;  consequently  the  snow  fell  back  upon  the 
track,  thereby  destroying  the  traction  and  derailing 
the  cars,  but  not,  as  has  been  erroneously  reported, 
interfering  with  the  electric  contact.  Steam,  cable, 
or  even  horse  cars,  under  the  same  circumstances 
would  fyave  been  compelled,  as  we  were,  to  resort  to 
shovels.  The  wires,  too,  during  this  storm  gave  no 
trouble;  but  they  were  somewhat  annoyed  by  the 
falling  of  telegraph  wires  upon  theirs,  which  were 
easily  and  quickly  removed. 

"  They  have  been  in  operation  nearly  a  year,  and 
during  that  time  not  one  single  person  has  received 
the  slightest  injury  while  on  board  their  cars,  nor 
has  any  person  or  animal  been  injured  by  their 
wires  upon  the  streets.  I  believe  this  record  to 
be  unsurpassed  by  any  company  handling  a  like 
number  of  passengers,  with  either  steam,  electric, 
cable,  or  horse  power." 

Some  statistics  about  this  line  will  be  found  under 
that  heading. 

The  Riverside  Park  Electric  Railway.— This  plant, 
in  Sioux  City,  la.,  which  was  opened  in  June,  is 
stated  to  be  in  many  respects  a  model  plant.  The 
following  description  is  therefore  given  here  in  full: 
The  power  house  is  located  at  the  edge  of  the  park 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Big  Sioux  with  the  Mis- 
souri River.  The  station  is  a  solidly  constructed 
brick  building  62x95  feet,  divided  into  two  rooms  with 
fire  wall  between.  One  room  contains  two  Wicks 
tubular  steel  boilers,  60  inches  by  16  feet,  having 
forty-four  4-inch  tubes ;  the  base  of  stack,  which  is  113 
feet  in  height,  is  42  inches  in  diameter,  and  built  of 
No.  10  and  12  iron ;  the  Worthington  pump ;  a  250 


150     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

horse-power  Kroeschell  heater,  two  Hancock  inspi- 
rators, and  four  sets  of  steam  loops.  The  second 
room  contains  the  two  125  horse-power  compound 
Westinghouse  engines,  at  100  pounds  steam  pres- 
sure, having  special  flywheels  of  double  the  ordi- 
nary weight,  insuring  close  regulation  under  the 
sudden  changes  incident  to  heavy  loads.  Coupled 
directly  to  the  engines  by  two  of  Schieren's  perfora- 
ted electric  belts,  16  inches  in  width  by  53  feet  long, 
are  two  Westinghouse  compound  wound  generators 
of  the  improved  U.  S.  type,  each  of  100  horse-power 
capacity,  having  54-inch  paper  pulleys  running  at 
350  revolutions.  These  generators  rest  on  a  brick 
foundation  6  feet  in  depth,  and  leveled  off  with  a 
half-inch  layer  of  melted  sulphur,  on  top  of  which 
rests  a  hardwood  base  8  inches  in  height,  that  is 
covered  with  three  sheets  of  one-eighth  inch  asbes- 
tos previously  saturated  with  P.  &  B.  paint,  and 
thoroughly  dried.  On  this  the  rails  are  placed  and 
firmly  fastened  to  the  foundation  by  insulated  bolts. 
Powell's  patent  oil  cups  and  lubricators  are  used  on 
both  engines  and  generators.  The  dynamo  leads  are 
carried  from  the  generator  through  rubber  tubing 
down  to  and  under  the  flooring  and  to  the  switch- 
board of  polished  sycamore  with  marble  face  on 
which  is  placed  the  improved  form  of  Westinghouse 
voltmeter,  lightning  arrester,  automatic  cut-outs, 
switches,  etc.  An  independent  circuit  is  used  for 
the  light  in  the  station  and  car  house.  The  car 
house  is  within  100  feet  of  the  station  and  is  a  brick 
building  50x150  feet,  designed  to  hold  20  cars,  and 
containing  every  requisite  for  the  rapid  handling  of 
the  same.  The  present  equipment  consists  of  six  new 


OVERHEAD   WIRE   SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  15l 

motor  cars,  eight  old  trailers,  and  the  steam  dum- 
mies. Each  of  the  new  cars  is  equipped  with  two 
McGuire  improved  trucks,  each  of  which  supports  a 
30  horse-power  Westinghouse  single  reduction  motor, 
especially  built  for  heavy  work  required  on  this 
line.  The  nine  miles  of  roadbed  is  nearly  a  con- 
tinuous series  of  curves,  there  being  38  in  number, 
ranging  from  4  degrees  to  20  degrees,  and  has  been 
built  through  several  deep  cuts,  from  one  of  which 
over  60,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  were  removed,  at 
an  expense  of  $4,800,  while  close  to  the  power  house 
there  is  a  trestle  built  634  feet  long,  having  a  rise  of 
4  per  cent,  on  a  19-degree  curve  of  300  feet,  the 
upper  end  of  the  trestle  being  16  feet  above  grade. 
The  pole-line  circuit  is  a  model  one,  every  pole  being 
truly  aligned  and,  when  necessary,  properly  guyed. 
The  feed  wires  are  Roebling's  weather-proof  000, 
and  the  trolley  wire  No.  0,  bare  copper,  suspended 
by  means  of  a  special  form  of  insulator  attached  to 
a  bracket  arm  bolted  to  the  pole. 

The  Sissach-Gelterkinden  Electric  Street  Railway. 
— Although  America  is  in  the  lead  in  the  electric 
railroad  industry,  we  may  often  learn  something 
from  the  careful  and  intelligent  workers  in  this  field 
abroad.  In  this  connection  a  few  details  regarding 
the  construction  of  this  small  Swiss  railway,  opened 
in  April,  and  some  of  the  results  of  its  operation, 
may  be  of  interest.  From  a  recent  article  on  the 
subject  in  Schweizerische  Bauzeitung  by  Dr.  A. 
Denzler,  it  appears  that  the  whole  length  of  the 
route  is  3.25  kilometres,  starting  at  the  central  rail- 
way station  in  Sissach  and  running  by  a  somewhat 
circuitous  route  to  the  terminus  at  Gelterkinden. 


152     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  maximum  grade  on  the  whole  line  is  15  per  cent., 
and  the  sharpest  curves  are  two  of  60  metres  radius, 
one  of  these  being  on  a  12  per  cent,  grade;  the 
gauge  is  one  metre. 

The  central  station  and  turbine  house  are  one 
kilometre  from  Sissach,  the  beginning  of  the  line. 
The  power  is  furnished  by  a  Jonval  turbine,  which, 
with  the  mean  quantity  of  water  at  a  flow  of  6.75 
metres,  is  about  40  horse-power.  The  water  is  sup- 
plied by  the  river  Ergalz,  and  is  led  to  the  turbine 
house  in  a  channel  partly  open  and  partly  closed.  As 
the  dynamo  makes  600  revolutions  per  minute  and 
the  turbine  runs  at  a  speed  of  but  98  to  100  a  spur 
gearing  is  interposed  between  the  wheel  and  the 
dynamo  shaft.  A  so-called  brake  regulator  is  used,  by 
means  of  which  the  turbine  always  runs  under  full 
load,  that  part  of  the  power  which  is  at  any  ti^ne 
not  absorbed  by  the  dynamo  being  taken  up  by 
the  brake  of  the  regulator.  This  method  has 
been  employed  quite  extensively  in  this  class  of 
work  abroad,  but  of  course  it  can  be  economically 
used  only  in  those  cases  where  the  quantity  of 
water  consumed  need  not  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. 

The  dynamo  which  furnishes  the  current  for  the 
car  motors  was  built  for  a  normal  output  of  50 
amperes  at  700  volts  pressure,  or,  in  other  words, 
about  35  kilowatts.  It  is  a  two-pole  machine  with 
series  windings  and  a  flat  ring  armature.  The  cur- 
rent is  taken  from  the  bronze  commutator  by  two 
pairs  of  brushes  of  copper  wire  gauze.  It  is  eaid 
that  by  using  this  style  of  brush  instead  of  those  of 
sheet  copper  the  disturbing  effects  of  induction  are 


OVERHEAD  WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  153 

not  felt  so  much  in  the  telephone  circuits  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  railway  lines. 

The  foundation  of  the  dynamo  is  insulated  from 
the  ground  by  wooden  beams,  the  positive  pole 
being  connected  with  the  ground  and  the  rails 
which  end  at  the  station.  On  the  switchboard  are 
mounted  a  main  circuit  breaker,  with  carbon  con- 
tact points,  an  ampere  meter,  a  lightning  arrester, 
and  an  automatic  short  circuiting  apparatus.  The 
first  mentioned  of  these  is  designed  for  short  cir- 
cuiting the  field  magnet  windings  of  the  dynamo  so 
that  the  current  is  interrupted  as  soon  as  the  maxi- 
mum potential  has  been  reached.  The  discharge 
points  of  the  lightning  arrester  consist  of  carbon 
rods  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  easily  replaced 
and  carefully  adjusted.  Any  arc  which  may  be 
formed  over  these  terminals  by  the  dynamo  current 
following  to  the  ground  when  a  lightning  discharge 
has  taken  place  is  extinguished  by  an  arrangement 
which  consists  of  a  solenoid  in  the  earth  circuit,  the 
core  of  which  is  drawn  down  by  the  continuous  pas- 
sage of  the  current  through  its  coils.  By  this  means 
the  two  contact  points  established  between  them 
is  extinguished.  Special  apparatus  for  regulation 
are  not  used,  so  that  the  required  duties  of  the 
attending  engineer  in  the  station  are  considerably 
reduced. 

The  rails  are  connected  by  strips  of  sheet  copper, 
which  are  soldered  and  bolted  to  the  rails;  when 
another  type  of  rail  is  used,  the  connection  is  made 
by  copper  wires  which  are  soldered  to  hooks  of 
sheet  copper  bolted  to  the  side  of  the  rails.  In 
addition  to  this  the  two  rails  of  the  track  are 


154     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

always  electrically  connected  by  copper  wires  of 
six  millimetres  diameter  at  intervals  of  four  rail 
lengths. 

In  addition  to  the  overhead  trolley  line  which 
forms  the  return,  a  feed  wire  is  placed  upon  the 
bracket  poles;  this  feed  wire  and  the  trolley  line 
are  connected  in  multiple  arc  by  insulated  cables  at 
intervals  of  about  100  metres.  By  this  means  the 
overloading  of  the  trolley  wire  is  prevented  and  at 
the  same  time  it  is  possible  to  use  the  current  when 
the  trolley  wire  at  any  section  is  broken. 

The  trolley  wire  consists  of  hard  drawn  copper 
wire  six  millimetres  in  diameter  placed  at  the  uni- 
form height  of  o|  metres  above  the  rails.  The  feed 
wires  are  run  on  oil  insulators,  while  the  trolley  line 
insulators  are  of  the  Sprague  type.  The  author  of 
the  article  in  question  points  out  the  fact  that  the 
awkward  and  clumsy  liquid  insulators  form  a  strik- 
ing contrast  with  the  little  bell  insulators  used  on 
the  trolley  wires. 

The  trolley  line  insulators  are  fastened  to  plain 
brackets  made  of  tubing.  The  brackets  are  secured 
to  poles  of  round  timber  which  are  placed  alter- 
nately on  opposite  sides  of  the  street.  The  poles  are 
35  to  40  metres  apart,  and  although  it  is  not  to  be  pre- 
tended that  these  poles  are  ornamental,  it  cannot  be 
said  that  they  disfigure  the  streets;  on  the  con- 
trary, one  gets  the  impression  that  when  light  and 
well  designed  iron  supports  of  a  little  greater  height 
than  those  here  described  are  used,  overhead  wires 
could  be  employed  without  hesitation  in  the  broad 
streets  found  in  most  of  the  suburbs  of  Swiss 
cities. 


OVERHEAD  WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS.  155 

The  truck  and  the  motor  used  will  be  found  illus- 
trated and  described  among  the  others,  under  those 
headings. 

The  current  flows  from  the  car  wheel  into  the  iron 
frame  and  then  branches  out  into  the  field  magnet 
coils  of  the  two  motors,  which  are  connected  in  mul- 
tiple arc ;  from  the  field  magnet  coils  the  current 
passes  into  the  armatures,  which  are  connected  in 
series  with  the  fields.  After  passing  through  the 
armatures  the  lines  from  the  two  machines  join  and 
pass  through  the  regulating  resistance  and  the 
ampere  meter. 

Between  the  armatures  and  the  field  magnet  coils 
is  placed  a  double  two-pole  reversing  switch,  by 
which  the  circuit  may  be  entirely  opened  or  the 
direction  of  the  rotation  of  the  armatures  may  be 
reversed.  The  speed  of  the  train  is  regulated  by 
resistance  coils,  which  are  arranged  about  a  central 
spindle.  The  hand  wheel  by  which  the  mechanical 
car  brake  is  applied  is  mounted  within  easy  reach 
of  the  motor  man,  and  is  directly  above  the  handle 
of  the  rheostat  switch.  It  is  claimed  that  by  opera- 
ting both  of  these  hand  wheels  at  once  the  motor 
man  can  stop  the  train  within  20  metres,  even  when 
running  at  full  speed.  An  alarm  bell  is  placed  on 
top  of  the  locomotive,  the  end  of  the  bell  cord  hang- 
ing directly  at  the  side  of  the  motor  man. 

The  total  weight  of  the  locomotive  is  6,170  kilo- 
grammes, the  total  length  being  4.69  metres  and  the 
total  height  2.94  metres.  Usually  the  train  consists 
of  a  locomotive  and  two  passenger  cars,  one  of 
which  has  a  seating  capacity  of  24  and  the  other  a 
seating  capacity  for  12  persons,  besides  considera- 


156     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

ble  space  for  packages.  The  cars  weigh  4,140  kilo- 
grammes, and  their  total  length  is  7.8  metres.  Dr. 
Denzler  points  out  that  the  weight  of  the  cars  seems 
decidedly  too  great  when  it  is  considered  that  a 
common  closed  horse  car  for  24  passengers  weighs 
only  1,300  to  1,500  kilogrammes.  Even  in  the  favor- 
able case,  when  the  train  consists  of  three  fully 
loaded  cars,  the  paying  load  of  72  passengers  is 
5,400  kilogrammes,  while  the  locomotive  weighs 
6,170  kilogrammes,  the  passengers  cars  16,420  kilo- 
grammes, the  train  crew  150  kilogrammes;  the 
total  load  is  22,740  kilogrammes.  From  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  paying  load  is  but  23.7  per  cent,  of 
the  dead  load,  and  that  but  18.3  per  cent,  of  the 
total  weight  transported  brings  any  revenue  to  the 
company.  Dr.  Denzler  says :  "  If  we  compare  this 
with  the  general  results  of  an  American  motor  car 
for  24  passengers  equipped  with  two  motors  of  15 
horse-power  each,  we  find  the  mean  values  for  the 
corresponding  quotients  47  per  cent,  and  36  per 
cent.,  that  is  about  twice  as  much  as  those  given 
above.  Even  in  those  cases  where  sufficient  power 
is  available  it  is  of  no  consequence  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  locomotive  by  improved  construc- 
tion when  the  advantage  thus  gained  is  again  lost 
by  the  use  of  too  heavy  cars." 

For  lighting  the  train  it  was  not  thought  best  to 
use  electric  lamps,  since  the  frequent  changes  of 
the  coupling  connections  between  the  locomotive 
and  the  cars  would  extinguish  the  lights,  It  is  pro- 
posed in  the  near  future  to  use  electric  heaters 
throughout  the  train. 

Th.€  tests  made  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  power 


OVERHEAD  WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS. 


157 


consumed  are  of  considerable  interest.  In  Fig.  22  are 
shown  the  fluctuations  of  the  output  in  watts  as 
measured  at  the  terminal  of  the  dynamo  at  inter- 
vals of  15  seconds  during  a  run  of  one  kilometre. 
During  this  run  the  minimum  and  maximum  output 
were  13.1  and  25.2  kilowatts  respectively.  The  aver- 


0      5     10    15    20    25    30 

KILO  WATTS. 
FIG.  22.— POWER  CURVE. 

age  of  34  measurements  was  16.7  kilowatts,  so  that 
the  highest  and  lowest  values  are  respectively  50.8 
per  cent,  above  and  21.5  per  cent,  below  the  mean 
value. 

The  potential  dynamo  terminals  varied  from  560 
to  760  volts.  The  current  usually  varied  during  the 
run  from  17  to  30  amperes,  the  maximum  consump- 


158      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

tion  being  50  amperes,  this  reading  being  taken  at 
the  moment  of  starting  on  a  15  per  cent,  grade,  the 
total  output  at  the  same  being  30.2  kilowatts.  Dur- 
ing this  run  the  train  consisted  of  the  locomotive, 
6,170  kilogrammes;  three  passenger  cars,  12,4:20 
kilogrammes;  30  passengers,  including  conductor 
and  brakeman,  2,250  kilogrammes,  or  a  total  weight 
of  20,840  kilogrammes. 

The  largest  consumption  of  power  was  33.5  kilo- 
watts, or  45.5  horse-power.  This  was  observed  at 
the  starting  of  a  train  of  33  tons  weight  on  a  level 
track.  Even  here  the  variation  from  the  mean 
value  during  the  run  was  but  92  per  cent.,  while 
with  motor  cars,  which  are  provided  with  a  double 
reduction  gear,  this  variation  is  often  more  than 
200  or  300  per  cent. 

An  idea  of  the  efficiency  of  the  locomotive  may 
be  obtained  from  the  formula 


in  which 

A  —  number  of  watts  per  second  of  the  work  done 
by  the  dynamo, 

(7  —  weight  of  train  in  tons, 

v  —  speed  per  second  in  metres, 

s  =  grade  in  per  cent., 

/  =  the  traction  •  co-efficient,  that  is,  the  effort 
which  is  necessary  in  order  to  move  it  on  a  level 
track. 

Tf  the  weight  G  —  It.,  and  the  speed  per  second 
v  =  1  m.,  n  is  the  efficiency,  that  is  the  quotient  of 
the  useful  work  done  at  the  circumference  of  the 
wheels  and  the  total  electrical  energy  absorbed  by 


OVERHEAD   WIRE   SURFACE   RAILWAYS.  159 

the  locomotive.  In  tbe  above  formula  /  and  n  are 
unknown;  A  =  16,700  watts;  G  —  20.84  t. ;  s  (mean 
value)  =  5.7  per  cent. ;  in  8  minutes  30  seconds  2,200 
m.  were  made.  From  this  t  v  =  4.3  m.  If  we  put 
these  values  in  the  formula,  then  we  find  as  an 


approximation   ( 


In  order  to  find  n  we  must  accept  for  /  an  approxi- 
mate value.  If  we  take/  =  7.5,  which  is  about  the 
mean  value  between  that  of  2.5  found  at  the  last 
Paris  exposition  with  the  Decauville  narrow  gauge 
road,  and  the  value  /  =  12.2,  found  by  Tresca  for 
level  routes  on  the  electric  car  line  between  Paris 
and  Versailles,  a  road  which  is  kept  in  good  con- 
dition, then  n  =  70  per  cent. 

Engineer  J.  L.  Hubel  has,  however,  found  by 
numerous  and  careful  experiments  on  a  line  of 
horse  cars  in  Hamburg  a  larger  value,  viz. :  /  =  15, 
but  the  conditions  on  the  Sissach-Gelterkinden  road 
resemble  much  more  nearly  the  first  two  lines  when 
"Yignol"  rails  are  used.  The  measurements  given 
above  had  to  be  made  with  the  volt  and  ampere 
meters  in'  use  at  the  station,  and  their  constants  had 
to  be  accepted  as  correct. 

Comparing  these  results  with  those  obtained  in 
this  country  Dr.  Denzler  says:  "Even  if  the  real 
efficiency  should  be  a  little  smaller  than  70  per 
cent.,  as  obtained  above,  still  the  great  progress 
made  here  cannot  be  denied  in  comparison  with  the 
results  obtained  with  the  best  known  American 
systems.  If  we  take,  for  instance,  as  a  basis,  the 
results  published  by  Dr.  Louis  Bell  on  the  electric 


160      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

road  in  Lafayette,  Ind.,  then  we  get  n  =  47  per 
cent.,  even  if  we  take  Huberts  larger  value  for 
/=  15." 

Another  measurement  on  a  grade  of  s  =  5.3  gave 
n  =  49.5  per  cent. 

Similar  results  can  be  calculated  from  Crosby's 
experiments  with  reference  to  the  roads  in  Cleve- 
land, Scranton  and  Kichmond.  In  no  instance  does 
the  value  of  n  exceed  50  per  cent.  This  means  that 
in  every  case  about  half  of  the  expended  energy  is 
lost  in  the  form  of  heat  and  friction  when  high 
speed  motors  with  double  transmission  are  used. 
The  value  obtained  shows  plainly  that  the  recently 
applied  method  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  elec- 
tric roads  by  reducing  the  speed  of  the  motor  is  the 
proper  one.  The  ideal  in  these  regards  is  a  motor 
car  or  an  electric  locomotive  in  which  the  car  axles 
and  the  armature  shafts  are  the  same,  so  that  all 
loss  in  gears  is  avoided. 

Dr.  Denzler  also  points  out  the  importance  in 
electric  railway  operation  of  deciding  whether  it  is 
desirable  to  use  independent  motor  cars  or  an  elec- 
tric locomotive  with  trail  cars,  and  under  what  cir- 
cumstances each  system  should  be  employed.  In 
favor  of  the  locomotive  it  is  pointed  out  that  at  first 
larger  electric  motors  may  be  employed,  which  can 
be  constructed  for  slower  speed  and  of  better  design 
than  if  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  motors  for  the 
limited  space  available  between  the  surface  of  the 
street  and  the  floor  of  an  ordinary  car.  In  an  elec- 
tric locomotive,  too,  the  motors  are  more  easily 
accessible  and  can  be  better  cared  for.  Dust  and 
moisture  proof  appliances  can  be  employed  more 


OVERHEAD   WIRE   SURFACE   RAILWAYS.  161 

conveniently,  and  nearly  every  part  of  the  appara- 
tus can  be  constructed  more  solidly  than  when 
smaller  machines  are  employed.  On  small  roads 
like  the  one  described  above,  light  trains  are  some- 
times needed  and  at  other  times  heavy  ones,  and  it 
is  especially  desirable  to  be  able  to  attach  freight 
cars  to  the  trains  at  different  times,  For  necessi- 
ties of  this  kind  there  are  no  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  constructing  locomotives  of  any  desired  capacity, 
as  is  the  case  with  independent  motor  cars,  where 
the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  motor  is  limited.  In 
this  latter  case  it  is  not  possible  to  go  beyond  a  cer- 
tain size  of  motor,  and  when  larger  trains  are  needed 
two  or  more  motor  cars  must  be  used,  in  which 
case  additional  employes  are  needed,  although  the 
demand  for  more  cars  may  be  confined  to  Sundays 
and  holidays.  Interest  on  the  capital  invested, 
maintenance  and  attendance,  will  cost  more  than 
when  a  single  locomotive  of  large  capacity  is 
employed.  The  disadvantages  which  are  connected 
with  the  use  of  special  locomotives  are  pointed  out 
by  Dr.  Denzler  to  be  as  follows:  The  length  of  the 
train  is  greater  than  when  independent  motor  cars 
are  used,  a  disadvantage  which  would  be  especially 
felt  in  narrow  business  streets.  The  first  cost  of  an 
electric  street  railway  in  a  city  where  many  cars  are 
run  at  the  same  time  will  be  greater  if  electric  loco- 
motives are  employed  than  when  independent  motor 
cars  are  used,  while  repairs  and  maintenance  will 
be  rather  less  with  locomotives.  For  these  reasons 
it  is  impossible  to  select  either  of  the  systems  as  the 
best  for  all  cases.  The  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  each  system  must  be  carefully  considered 


162     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

in  each  particular  case  in  connection  with  the  local 
circumstances  and  demands. 

On  the  electric  road  described  above  nine  regular 
trains  are  run  daily  in  each  direction ;  for  frieght 
distribution  special  trains  are  run.  The  time  con- 
sumed in  running  from  Sissach  to  Gelterkinden  is 
15  minutes,  including  stops.  The  stations  on  the 
line  are  connected  with  the  power  lines  by  tele- 
phone, the  telephone  line  having  a  metallic  circuit, 
the  wires  of  which  are  run  upon  the  same  poles  that 
carry  the  feed  wire  for  the  trolley  line,  and  it  is 
said  that  only  a  slight  humming  sound  is  percep- 
tible on  the  telephone  line  when  the  train  is  in 
motion  along  the  line. 

Siemens  &  Halske  Roads. — In  place  of  the  usual 
trolley,  which  they  claim  jumps  out  from  under  the 
wire  too  frequently,  the  firm  of  Siemens  &  Halske 
(Berlin)  use  a  horizontal  wire  four  or  five  feet  long, 
running  crosswise  to  the  car  as  seen  in  the  adjoin- 
ing illustration ;  this  is  pressed  up  against  the  over- 
head line,  against  which  it  slides ;  the  contact  wire 
is  attached  to  a  single  bar,  making  a  T-shaped 
figure,  the  upper  part  having  a  bearing  against  the 
line  and  the  lower  part  being  hinged  and  over- 
weighted at  its  lower  end.  Besides  being  a  sliding 
instead  of  a  rolling  contact,  and  avoiding  the 
rupture  of  the  contact  by  a  jumping  out  of  the 
usual  trolley  wheel,  they  claim  as  additional  advan- 
tages that  the  suspension  of  the  line  wires  thereby 
becomes  much  simpler  at  curves  and  switches,  in 
which  they  are  doubtless  right.  On  straight  stretches 
the  line  wire  must  be  suspended  slightly  zigzag,  so  as 
not  to  cut  grooves  in  the  contact  piece.  An  objec- 


OVERHEAD  WIKE  SURFACE  BAILWAY3.  163 


164     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

tion  to  it  is  that  it'  wears  out  the  line  wire  and  that 
it  makes  a  disagreeable  hissing  noise,  which  is 
transmitted  along  the  wire  far  enough  to  be  dis- 
tinctly audible  almost  one  square  each  side  from 
the  car.  The  line  wire  is  five  metres  (16  feet)  above 
the  track,  and  is  suspended  between  the  tops  of 
wrought  iron  tubular  poles  made  by  the  Mannes- 
mann  process.  The  line  wire  is  a  six  millimetre 
(full  No.  3  B.  &  S.)  iron  wire,  continuous  through- 
out ;  it  is  connected  at  every  50  and  60  metres  to  a 
feeder. 

Thomson-Houston  Freight  Locomotive.  —  The 
freight  locomotive,  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  weighs  21  tons,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  electric  locomotive  ever  built  in  this  coun- 
try ;  its  general  appearance  is  that  of  a  small  steam 
locomotive  without  the  boiler.  The  massive  iron 
frame  consists  of  two  heavy  pieces  of  cast  iron 
bolted  together  at  the  ends.  The  end  plates  are  pro- 
vided with  heavy  spring  drawbars  such  as  are  used 
on  the  heaviest  freight  cars,  while  a  cow  catcher  is 
cast  solid  with  the  end  of  the  locomotive.  One 
motor,  having  a  maximum  capacity  of  125  horse- 
power, supplies  the  motive  power.  This  motor  is 
geared  to  the  forward  axle  by  a  train  of  powerful 
cast  steel  gears.  Parallel  rods  li  inches  by  4£  inches 
connect  the  two  axles.  The  distance  between  the 
centres  of  axles  is  six  feet  four  inches,  while  the 
diameter  of  the  drive  wheels  is  42  inches.  The  motor 
is  made  with  a  special  waterproof  finish  throughout, 
designed  for  the  purpose.  The  armature  makes 
1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  when  the  car  is  run- 
ning at  a  speed  of  five  miles  per  hour.  This  speed  is 


OVERHEAD  WIRE  SURFACE  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  24.— THOMSON-HOUSTON  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE. 


166     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

reduced  by  the  gears  from  25  revolutions  at  the 
armature  shaft  to  one  at  the  axle.  All  the  gears  are 
of  steel,  and  entirely  enclosed  in  tight  iron  cases 
carrying  heavy  grease.  The  largest  of  these,  that 
attached  to  the  axle,  has  a  width  of  eight  inches. 
A  very  powerful  brake,  consisting  of  a  cast-iron 
drum  keyed  solidly  to  the  intermediate  shaft  of  the 
motor,  is  provided.  This  is  covered  with  a  wooden 
lagging,  and  the  whole  embraced  by  two  steel 
bands  which  are  tightened  by  powerful  cams  opera- 
ted by  a  lever  in  the  cab.  This  brake  is  sufficient  to 
stop  a  train  of  eight  cars  when  going  five  miles  an 
hour  down  a  two  per  cent,  grade.  Sand  boxes 
deliver  the  sand  at  the  rails  directly  under  the 
wheels  on  both  sides  of  the  locomotive,  thus  secur- 
ing maximum  traction  effect.  In  the  cab,  or  opera- 
ting stand,  is  placed  the  controlling  mechanism, 
consisting  of  a  rheostat,  reversing  switch,  brake, 
and  sand  box  levers.  The  current  is  taken  from  a 
trolley  wire  by  means  of  what  is  known  as  the  "  Uni- 
versal" trolley,  the  peculiar  feature  of  which  is  that 
when  the  locomotive  is  reversed  it  is  not  necessary 
to  reverse  the  trolley.  This  locomotive  is  to  be  used 
for  hauling  freight  cars  from  the  factory  to  the 
main  line  of  the  railroad,  a  distance  of  two  miles. 
Some  data  oh  the  locomotive  are  given  below : 

Voltage  required  for  the  motor 500  volts. 

Horse  power  at  the  drawbar 100. 

Speed  on  level  track  when  developing  this  power 5  miles  per  hour. 

Wheel  base 6  feet  4  inches. 

Diameter  of  wheels 42  inches. 

Speed  reduction  between  armature  and  axle l  to  25. 

Gauge 4  feet  8%  inches. 

Wheel  base 6  feet  4  inches. 

Measured  height  above  rail  platform 4  feet  4  inches; 

Greatest  length  of  locomotive  (at  cowcatcher) 15  feet  1%  inches. 

Greatest  length  of  platform 7  feet  %  inch. 

Weight  of  locomotive  less  trolley  pole 42.525  pounds. 

Approximate  weight  of  motor 5,400  pounds. 


CONDUIT   AND  SURFACE  CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.     167 

In  a  number  of  trials,  the  first  test  was  made  by 
coupling  the  locomotive  to  two  cars  heavily  loaded 
with  iron.  These  were  shifted  from  one  track  to 
another,  both  tracks  being  on  a  2  per  cent,  grade, 
and  also  on  a  curve  of  about  150  feet  radius.  The 
total  weight  of  the  cars  was  54^  tons.  The  second 
test  was  made  by  coupling  on  two  more  cars,  mak- 
ing four  in  all,  and  shifting  them  as  before.  The 
total  weight  of  the  load  was  96  tons.  The  third  and 
final  test  was  made  with  six  loaded  cars  handled  in 
the  same  manner,  and  with  apparently  as  little 
effort  as  was  required  to  shift  two  cars. 

Another  freight  locomotive  built  by  the  same 
parties  was  illustrated  in  The  Electrical  World, 
June  20,  1891,  page  462.  It  differs  from  this  one  in 
that  its  general  appearance  is  that  of  an  ordinary 
platform  freight  car,  measuring  8x18  feet,  and  can 
therefore  be  used  as  a  car  besides  being  a  locomo- 
tive. It  is  capable  of  hauling  a  load  of  60,000  pounds 
at  a  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour.  The  single  motor  is 
of  30  horse-power. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

CONDUIT  AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS, 

Under  this  heading  are  included  those  systems  in 
which  the  contact  wires  are  placed  in  conduits, 
open  or  closed,  or  those  in  which  the  two  rails  are 
used,  as  the  two  conductors.  While  much  is  hoped 
for  from  this  system,  with  one  exception  little  has 
been  accomplished  in  actual  practice.  The  road 
running  in  Budapest,  described  below,  is  the  only 
large  plant  of  this  kind,  and  it  appears  to  be  run- 


168      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

ning  very  successfully.  The  introduction  of  this 
system  into  America  appears,  from  reports,  to  be  in 
the  near  future.  While  the  Americans  have  been 
losing  time  in  endeavoring  to  reduce  the  preju- 
dice against  overhead  wires  in  large  cities,  this 
European  firm  complied  with  the  requirements  of 
municipal  authorities,  and  has  constructed  a  suc- 
cessful conduit  system.  The  features  of  conduit  and 
rail  systems  are  best  shown  from  the  following 
extracts  taken  from  the  published  expressions  of 
writers. 

In  a  very  interesting  article  on  electric  railroads, 
Mr.  F.  L.  Pope  states:  "The  original  invention  of 
Field  contemplated  the  supply  of  electricity  to  the 
traveling  car  from  conductors  inclosed  in  a  conduit 
beneath  the  pavement.  He.  as  well  as  many  other 
inventors,  appreciating  the  force  of  that  prejudice 
which  undoubtedly  exists — among  newspaper  edi- 
tors—against any  avoidable  multiplication  of  over- 
head electric  wires  in  the  streets,  realized  that  the 
great  prize  to  be  sought  for  above  all  others  was  the 
invention  of  a  system  of  electrical  supply  which 
should  dispense  altogether  with  the  overhead  line. 
Hosts  of  inventors  have  diligently  wrought  for  ten 
years  upon  this  most  difficult  problem.  Hundreds 
of  patents  have  been  taken  out  and  more  than  a 
million  dollars  have  been  disbursed  in  paying  for 
tuition  in  the  costly  school  of  experience.  More 
than  once,  and  in  more  than  one  direction,  success 
has  at  times  seemed  almost  certain ;  yet  the  truth 
compels  me  to  say  that  from  the  hard  practical 
standpoint  of  dollars  and  cents,  by  which  every 
invention  must  first  or  last  be  tried,  the  net  out- 


CONDUIT  AND  SURFACE  CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.     169 

come  of  all  this  vast  expenditure  of  labor,  time,  and 
money  has,  up  to  the  present  moment,  been  almost 
insignificant.  The  reward  which  awaits  the  fortu- 
nate person  who  succeeds  in  completely  solving  this 
problem  may  well  be  regarded  as  a  potentiality  of 
wealth  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice.  The  problem 
of  the  underground  conduit  does  not  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear to  be  a  very  difficult  one.  It  renders  necessary, 
in  the  first  place,a  construction  which  will  effectually 
resist  the  action  of  forces  tending  to  disturb  the  con- 
dition of  the  wires,  and  with  the  heavy  traffic  on 
the  streets  this  involves  a  very  strong  structure.  It 
is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  conductors  shall 
remain  insulated  from  each  other  and  from  the 
ground,  under  all  conditions  of  weather.  The  exi- 
gencies of  heavy  rains  and  snows  necessitate  a  con- 
struction which  shall  permit  of  a  thorough  insula- 
tion of  the  conductors  and  a  drainage  of  the  entire 
system.  There  are  other  minor  points  which  require 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  Without  going  into 
details,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  conduit  system 
has  been  tried  on  an  extensive  scale  in  Denver, 
Cleveland,  and  Boston,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in 
several  other  places,  but  in  every  case  the  continual 
interference  and  interruptions  consequent  upon  its 
use  have  exhausted  the  patience  of  the  traveling 
public  and  compelled  its  abandonment.  I  do  not 
wish  for  one  moment  to  convey  the  impression  that 
the  problem  is  an  insoluble  one.  I  may,  perhaps, 
say  that  I  think  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
this  direction  within  the  past  year,  and  I  cannot 
but  feel  that  the  disappearance  of  the  overhead  sys- 
tem from  the  streets  of  all  our  larger  cities  and 


170     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

towns  is  only  a  question  of  time,  although  the  objec- 
tions which  have  been  most  strenuously  made  to  its 
introduction  are  for  the  most  part  rather  of  a  senti- 
mental than  of  a  practical  character." 

The  following  opinions  were  given  by  Mr.  Mans- 
field; we  would  add,  however,  that  he  does  not 
appear  to  be  aware  of  the  fact  that  there  is  such  a 
system  running  with  apparent  success  in  the  city  of 
Budapest :  "  There  have  been  in  this  country  at  least 
four  practical  experiments  with  conduit  roads,  sev- 
eral hundred  thousand  dollars  have  been  expended 
in  testing  it,  and  thousands  additional  in  perfecting 
it,  particular  attention  being  given  to  the  protection 
and  insulation  of  the  bare  conductor.  In  spite,  how- 
ever, of  all  this  refinement  and  study,  practically 
nothing  has  been  accomplished;  and  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  asserting  that  the  continuous  live  con- 
ductor in  an  open  slotted  conduit  is  to-day  a  failure, 
and  that  it  cannot  be  made  a  success  throughout 
our  cities  of  to-day,  its  fatal  weakness  being  our 
inability  to  prevent  the  conduit  from  becoming 
filled  with  water,  mud,  etc.  The  time  may  come 
when  our  sewerage  systems  will  be  perfect  enough 
to  enable  us  to  overcome  this  fatal  weakness. 
To-day,  however,  they  are  not,  and  even  an  opti- 
mistic view  puts  this  time  a  long  way  distant. 

"The  inventions  covered  by  the  surface  method 
are  somewhat  similar  to  those  employed  in  the  con- 
duit system,  only,  in  place  of  being  in  a  conduit, 
they  are  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  street.  By 
far,  however,  the  larger  number  of  arrangements 
are  based  upon  what  might  be  called  the  "interval" 
or  "point"  system.  Primarily  this  arrangement  con- 


CONDUIT  AND  SURFACE  CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.     171 

sists  of  an  underground  insulated  conductor  con- 
nected by  means  of  taps  to  contact  points  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  held  in  place  by  means  of 
iron  boxes,  and  insulated  therefrom  by  means  of 
rubber,  wood,  fibre,  or  other  similar  substances. 
Upon  the  car  is  swung  a  long  contact  plate  extend- 
ing practically  from  one  end  to  the  other.  This 
plate  is  carried  close  to  the  ground,  and  is  arranged 
to  touch  the  points  as  it  passes  along.  Many  auto- 
matic arrangements  have  been  devised  to  cut  these 
contact  points  into  circuit  by  the  car  as  it  passes 
along  One  inventor  had  electro-magnets  on  his  car, 
which  imparted  their  magnetism  to  the  iron  contact 
pins  or  points.  These  becoming  magnetized  would 
lift  a  little  armature  inside  the  iron  casing,  which 
in  turn  moved  a  switch  and  cut  the  iron  contact 
points  into  circuit.  Another  inventor  arranged  a 
slot  between  his  tracks,  in  which  the  plow  passed. 
As  this  plow  passed  the  contact  points,  it  would  tip 
a  lever  or  some  other  automatic  device,  which  would 
throw  a  switch  and  put  the  iron  contact  points  into 
circuit.  All  these  arrangements  have  the  same  fatal 
weakness — a  liability  to  ground  or  short  circuits.  I 
do  not  consider  any  of  them  practically  possible. 
There  is  one  more  system,  which  practically  com- 
bines all  these  methods,  and  which  obviates  many 
of  the  objections.  The  inventor  has  a  slot  between 
his  rails  and  boxes,  with  contact  device  within, 
placed  at  proper  intervals.  Upon  his  car  is  a  plow 
which  passes  along  through  the  slot,  and  also  a  long 
contact  plate  or  arrangement  extending  its  entire 
length.  The  operation  of  the  invention  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  plow  as  it  passes  through  the  slot  strikes 


172      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

a  lever  placed  in  connection  with  each  box,  which 
lifts  for  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  inches  above  the 
ground  a  piston  carrying  the  contact  piece  proper. 
This  is  made  in   the  shape  of  a  right  angle  hook 
placed  within  a  vertically  moving  piston,  and  thor- 
oughly insulated  from  it.     As  this  is  raised  up,  the 
long  contact  plate  under  the  car  passes  beneath  the 
hook  and  holds  it   up.     The  current  is  taken  into 
the  car  as  the  plate  slides  under  the  live  hook.    Nat- 
urally, as  the  car  passes  along,  the  hook  slides  off 
from  the  end  of  the  contact  bar  and  drops  back  into 
place.    To  protect  this  hook,  or  contact  piece  proper, 
it  is  covered  with  an  extension  of  the  cylinder,  so 
that,  as  far  as  the  street  is  concerned,  the  surface  is 
perfectly  smooth,  and  one  sees  nothing  but  a  small 
round  cover  in  the  centre   of  each  of  these  boxes. 
The  contact  hook   is   alive   only  when  it  is  resting 
on  the  contact  plate  of  the  car.    Certainly,  in  so  far 
as  getting  rid  of  all  the  troubles  due  to  the  street 
being  covered  with  water,  this  is  successful.     The 
fatal  weakness  whereby  the  contact  points  remain 
permanently  on  the  street  surface  is  obviated  here 
by  the  contact  point  being  practically  lifted  six  or 
eight  inches   above  the  surface.     In  regard  to  the 
permanence   and   reliability  of  this   system,  I   can 
say  nothing,  as  no  trials  have  been  made. 

"  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  asserting  that  this  class 
will  never  prove  a  success,  nor  can  it  be  made  to 
work  successfully  throughout  any  of  our  cities  to- 
day. The  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  It  is  immaterial 
whether  the  automatic  devices  prevent  the  sections 
or  contact  points  from  being  alive  all  of  the  time  or 
not;  if  the  conduit  is  filled  with  water  or  mud,  and 


CONDUIT   AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR   SYSTEMS.     173 

the  points  are  made  alive  just  as  the  car  passes, 
there  is  bound  to  be  a  momentary  grounding  from 
these  points.  In  other  words,  a  point  made  alive  in 
water  with  the  other  side  of  the  circuit  grounded, 
is  just  about  as  dangerous  and  bad  as  if  it  remained 
alive.  It  is  true  that  the  grounding  may-not  be  as 
severe,  but  still  it  will  occur,  and  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  cars  throughout  the  city  moving  at  the  same 
time,  causing  therefore  a  large  number  of  points  to 
be  alive,  if  any  number  of  points  were  grounded 
through  water  it  would  cause  a  tremendous  loss 
upon  the  central  power  station,  and  in  all  proba- 
bility a  complete  grounding  or  short  circuiting  of 
the  entire  system.  Numerous  ingenious  schemes 
have  been  devised  to  overcome  this  fatal  weakness. 
None,  however,  have  ever  been  put  to  trial.  I  have 
seen  many,  yet  to-day  there  is  no  hope  in  this  direc- 
tion. 

"  Several  of  these  devices  are  very  interesting  and 
worth  mentioning.  One  inventor  placed  his  bare 
conductor  in  a  rubber  tube  made  something  like  a 
hose  pipe.  Arranged  upon  the  upper  side  of  this 
tube  are  the  contact  points,  which  might  be  likened 
to  rivets  punched  or  tapped  through  the  tubing. 
The  contact  wheel  or  device  rolls  along  the  top  of 
this  tube,  and  is  sufficiently  heavy  as  it  proceeds  to 
press  the  tube  together  so  that  the  contact  points  or 
rivets  come  in  contact  with  the  conductor  inside 
the  tube.  By  this  means  the  current  is  transmitted 
to  the  motors.  Obviously,  as  the  car  proceeds,  the 
tube  behind  the  contact  wheel  springs  back  into  its 
original  position. 

"Another  arrangement   was  to  have  inside  the 


174     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

conduit  a  large  elastic  tube  with  a  bare  conductor 
inside,  this  tube  to  be  slit  along  its  upper  side. 
Attached  to  the  car  is  a  plow  with  a  contact  device 
at  its  lower  end  inside  the  tube  and  in  contact  with 
the  conductor.  The  plow  moves  along  with  the  car 
and  slides  through  the  slit.  With  this  arrangement 
it  is  apparent  that  if  the  conduit  were  filled  with 
water  it  would  run  in  just  before  and  behind  the 
plow.  Should  this  occur,  the  old  fatal  trouble  would 
be  bound  to  follow.  Furthermore,  it  would  be 
exceedingly  difficult  to  arrange  the  tube  sufficiently 
rigid  in  position  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  plow, 
and  the  sides  of  the  slit  sufficiently  tough  to  with- 
stand the  friction.  The  question  of  turnouts  would 
also  be  serious  and  troublesome. 

"  Another  inventor  arranged  on  each  side  of  his 
conduit  slot  rubber  flaps  shod  with  steel  and  held 
together  by  means  of  springs.  Attached  to  the  car 
is  the  plow  as  usual.  As  the  plow  passes  along  in 
the  conduit  it  presses  back  the  flaps.  The  objection 
to  this  is,  of  course,  the  liability  of  the  water  getting 
into  the  slit  before  and  behind  the  plow.  To  obviate 
this,  the  inventor  ingeniously  suggested  that  the 
whole  conduit  be  kept  under  an  air  pressure,  which 
air  pressure  would  be  sufficient  to  blow  the  water 
out  at  any  of  these  open  places  where  it  tended  to 
run  in.  I  do  not  consider  that  any  of  these  plans 
can  ever  be  successful. 

"Summing  up  the  general  results  of  the  under- 
ground and  surface  methods,  it  certainly  looks  as  if 
wo  could  not  expect  very  much  from  them  in  the 
immediate  future.  Much  perseverance  and  money 
must  be  expended  before  as  practical  and  certain  a 


CONDUIT  AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.     175 

method  as  our  present  overhead  one  is 'attained. 
We  surely  are  all  anxiously  and  hopefully  waiting 
for  it." 

Mr.  F.  H.  Monks  says:  "The  conduit  system  has 
been  thoroughly  tested,  and  has  been  shown  to  pos- 
sess no  commercial  value  for  the  propulsion  of  street 
cars  to  date." 

Descriptive. 

Besides  the  few  systems  incidentally  described  in 
the  above  extracts,  the  following  may  be  of  inter- 
est: 


FIG.  25, 

Siemens  &  Halske  Conduit  System;  Budapest 
Railway. — Undoubtedly  the  most  interesting  Eu- 
ropean street  railway  system  to  the  Americans,  who 
can  learn  little  from  abroad  regarding  the  overhead 
plan,  is  the  underground  conduit  system  of  Siemens 
&  Halske,  as  introduced  by  them  in  the  city  of 
Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary. 


17G      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

The  conduit,  as  seen  in  Fig.  25,  is  placed  under 
one  rail.  It  consists  of  castings  having  flanges  of 
18  centimetres  (7  inches)  placed  every  1.2  metres 
(about  4  feet),  the  space  between  being  a  conduit 
of  concrete.  The  oval  shaped  conduit  has  a  width, 
clear,  of  28  centimetres  (11  inches)  and  a  height  of 
33  centimetres  (13  inches). 

The  slot  consists  of  two  beam  rails  having  no 
inside  lower  flange,  and  fastened  to  the  conduit 
frames  by  wrought-iron  angle  pieces.  The  width  of 
the  slot  is  33  millimetres  (1^  inches).  The  total  depth 
of  the  foundation  below  the  rail  top  is  70  centimetres 
(27i  inches).  The  conductors,  both  positive  and 
negative,  are  made  of  angle  irons,  secured,  as  seen 
in  the  figure,  by  means  of  insulators  fastened  to  the 
castings.  They  are  sufficiently  high  above  the  floor 
of  the  conduit  to  be  protected  from  the  water  which 
may  collect  in  the  conduits.  They  are,  furthermore, 
under  the  top  of  the  oval,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
touched  from  the  outside.  It  should  be  noticed  that 
there  is  no  earth  return  used  in  this  system,  as  both 
leads  are  insulated.  The  water  which  runs  into  the 
conduits  is  collected  at  the  lowest  points  and  passes 
through  settling  boxes  to  the  sewers.  The  second 
track  may  be  of  any  desirable  form,  even  only  a 
flat  rail.  An  objection  to  having  the  conduit  under 
one  rail  instead  of  in  the  middle  arises  in  cases 
where,  by  the  nature  of  the  course  of  the  track  and 
the  curves,  the  cars  become  reversed  in  their  posi- 
tions on  the  track-,  such  cases  can  probably  be 
avoided  by  proper  laying  out  of  the  road,  and  in  the 
worst  case  by  a  second  conduit  under  the  other  rail 
for  parts  where  it  cannot  be  avoided.  On  a  one- 


CONDUIT   AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR   SYSTEMS.     177 

track  line  the  cars  must  have  their  front  and  back 
platform  alike,  as  they  cannot  be  turned  around. 

The  car  truck  and  the  motor  are  the  same  as 
those  used  in  connection  with  their  overhead  sys- 
tem ;  they  will  be  found  illustrated  under  the  head- 
ing of  motors  and  trucks.  Only  one  axle  is  driven, 
the  other  is  flexibly  connected  to  the  third  point  of 
support  of  the  motor  frame.  The  starting,  stopping, 
and  reversing  of  the  motor  is  done  as  usual  by  a 
crank  at  either  end  of  the  car,  operating  the  same 
switches.  Controlling  resistances  are  placed  under 
the  body  of  the  car. 

An  illustration  of  the  generating  station,  too 
large  for  reproduction  here,  may  be  found  in  The 
Electrical  World,  October  24,  1891,  page  304.  This 
station  contains  three  compound  condensing  steam 
engines  of  100  horse-power  each;  in  another  part 
there  are  two  more  of  200  horse-power  each,  driving 
direct  coupled  dynamos.  The  system  is  run  with  300 
volts,  and  all  the  dynamos  lead  to  common  bus  wires. 
The  leads  are  made  of  lead  covered  cables  armored 
with  iron  bands  and  laid  directly  in  the  earth ;  these 
lead  to  junction  boxes  from  which  others  run  out 
along  the  road  and  are  connected  at  intervals  by 
means  of  short  branch  cables  to  the  iron  leads  in 
the  conduits. 

The  greatest  up  grades  are  1.5  per  cent,  and  1.6 
per  cent.,  and  the  smallest  curves  have  a  radius  of 
50  metres  (168  feet),  25  metres  (84  feet),  and  45 
metres  (148  feet) ;  the  latter  is  on  a  1.6  per  cent,  up 
grade.  The  allowable  speeds  are  as  follows:  15  kilo- 
metres (9.3  miles)  in  the  city,  18  to  20  kilometres  (11 
to  12|  miles)  in  the  ontlying  portions,  10  kilometres 


178      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

(6.2  miles)  in  the  densest  parts  of  the  city,  and  six 
kilometres  (3.7  miles)  over  street  crossings.  There 
are  at  present  20  kilometres  (12.4  miles)  of  road  in 
use,  and  50  cars.  Each  car  travels  daily  120  to  130 
and  even  150  kilometres  (75-93  miles)  in  a  16-hour 
service. 

The  first  part  of  the  road,  2.5  kilometres  (1.55 
miles)  long,  was  opened  July  30,  1889,  and  has, 
therefore,  been  running  over  two  years.  The  sys- 
tem has  been  so  satisfactory  that  it  is  being 
extended  quite  rapidly.  It  was  built  at  the  expense 
of  the  firm  of  Siemens  &  Halske,  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  said  to  be  a  practical  experimental  line  of 
that  company.  They  state  that  some  Americans 
have  been  negotiating  with  them  to  introduce  this 
system  on  a  large  scale  in  one  of  the  principal 
American  cities,  but  the  name  of  this  city  was  not 
given. 

The  following  figures  from  the  official  reports  of 
1890  may  be  of  interest,  as  also  the  deductions  which 
can  be  made  from  them.  There  were  running 
during  that  year  three  lines.  The  total  number  of 
passengers  carried  was  4,459,234;  the  total  car  ki- 
lometres were  758,838.1  (about  470,000  car  miles) ;  the 
total  income  from  fares  was  275,742.97  florins  (about 
$113,000).  From  this  it  follows  that  the  average 
number  of  passengers  per  car  kilometre  was  5.88 
(9.48  per  car  mile);  the  average  income  was  36.27 
kreutzer  (about  14.8  cents)  per  car  kilometre  (about 
24  cents  per  car  mile) ;  the  income  per  passenger, 
that  is,  the  cost  of  the  ride  to  the  passenger,  was 
6.18  kreutzer  (2.53  cents).  There  were  6  kilometres 
of  line  in  operation  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and 


CONDUIT   AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR   SYSTEMS.    179 

9.1  at  the  end.  In  a  public  address,  one  of  the 
engineers  of  the  company  stated  that  the  latest 
figures  (July  and  August,  1891)  of  cost  of  running 
were  only  37  per  cent,  of  the  income,  which  cer- 
tainly is  remarkably  low.  The  city  tax,  which  is 
very  high  in  Budapest,  is  not  included  in  this. 

Comparing  this  with  the  corresponding  official 
figures  of  the  horse-car  lines  of  the  same  city,  we 
find  that  the  total  number  of  passengers  carried 
was  18,107,543;  the  income  from  fares  was  1,485,180 
florins  (about  $609,000) ;  the  income  per  passenger, 
that  is,  the  cost  of  the  ride  to  the  passenger,  was 
therefore  8.20  kreutzer  (about  3.36  cents)  as  com- 
pared with  6.18  kreutzer  for  the  electrical  roads. 
The  fares  of  the  electrical  roads  are  therefore 
cheaper,  being  24.6  per  cent,  less  than  the  horse 
lines,  or  the  latter  are  32.7  per  cent,  more  expen- 
sive to  the  passenger  than  the  electric  roads.  The 
frequency  of  the  cars  per  kilometre  of  line  was 
larger  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  than  on  the 
horse-car  lines,  and  at  the  end  was  double  the  other. 
The  income  of  the  electrical  road  per  kilometre  of 
track  was  more  than  1.5  times  that  of  the  horse 
cars  in  the  latter  half  of  the  year.  The  latter  figure, 
however,  depends  on  the  traffic  in  the  particular 
districts  through  which  the  roads  pass  and  is  not 
necessarily  a  criterion  in  favor  of  electric  roads ; 
the  income  on  the  electrical  roads,  however, 
increased  from  1,153  florins  per  kilometre  of  road  in 
January  to  3,621  in  December,  while  that  for  the 
horse  car  roads  remained  about  the  same  in  Decem- 
ber as  it  was  in  January,  namely,  2,267  against 
3,124.  The  length  of  the  horse-car  roads  was  45,6 


180      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

kilometres  in  January,  and  45.8  in  December. 
Unfortunately  the  report  does  not  give  the  number 
of  car  miles  of  the  horse-car  lines,  so  that  no  com- 
parison caa  be  made  with  that  figure.  It  should  be 
noticed,  however,  that  the  length  of  the  horse-car 
lines  was  five  times  as  great  in  December  as  that  of 
the  electric  lines,  and  it  is  therefore  likely  that  the 
lengths  of  the  rides  were  greater  than  in  the  short 
electrical  roads.  This  is  all  the  more  likely,  from 
the  fact  that  the  number  of  car  miles  of  the  horse 
cars  was  omitted  in  the  report. 

Love  Conduit. — This  system  consists  briefly  of  a 
small  conduit  15  inches  deep,  placed  between  the 
rails,  as  in  the  cable  system,  and  having  a  slot.  The 
slot  rails  forming  the  top  of  the  conduit  are 
arranged  so  as  to  be  detachable,  thus  permitting 
the  conduit  to  be  readily  inspected  and  cleaned. 
Two  bare  copper  wires  are  secured  on  insulators 
near  this  slot,  but  are  protected  by  a  deep  flange 
which  protects  them  from  any  interference  through 
the  slot.  Two  illustrations  of  this  conduit  will  be 
found  on  page  9  of  The  Electrical  World  of  July 
4,  1891. 

Gordon  System. — Like  in  the  Lineff  system,  this 
consists  of  a  closed  conduit,  the  top  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  metallic  sections  which  are  in  circuit  only 
when  the  car  passes  over  them.  It  was  described  in 
the  London  Electrical  Engineer,  as  follows : 

"The  conduit  carrying  the  current  is  a  very  small 
one,  some  two  inches  or  three  inches  of  ground  being 
quite  sufficient  to  contain  it.  The  supply  rail  is 
laid  midway  between  the  two  line  rails,  and  con- 
sists of  flat  iron  laid  in  concrete  in  lengths  of  about 


CONDUIT   AND   SURFACE   CONDUCTOR   SYSTEMS.    181 

eight  feet,  or  one-third  the  length  of  the  car.  The 
system  arranges  for  charging  these  sections  by  the 
full  current  of,  say,  400  volts,  as  the  car  progresses, 
so  that  no  section  is  charged  except  those  under  the 
car.  This  is  done  by  a  system  of  connections  laid 
in  a  gas  pipe  with  T-pieces  connecting  to  each 
length  and  leading  back  to  a  commutating  box, 
which  is  the  feature  of  the  system;  the  conductor 
sections  are  charged  by  a  return  insulated  circuit 
actuated  by  magnets  placed,  not  in  the  car,  but  in  a 
box  under  the  pavement.  These  boxes  are  placed 
every  100  yards  under  the  curb,  and  contain  strong 
long-pull  magnets,  one  for  each  section.  As  the  car 
progresses,  a  shunt  current  comes  back  from  section 
No.  1  to  magnet  No.  2,  which  rises  and  puts  section 
No.  2  into  connection,  cutting  off  No.  1,  and  so  on, 
as  the  car  moves — the  main,  of  course,  running  the 
entire  length  of  the  road.  The  pull  of  the  magnet 
is  about  seven  pounds,  a.nd  evidently  is  more  than 
ample  to  do  its  work.  The  advantages  of  the  sys- 
tem are,  the  use  of  the  closed  conduit,  no  slot  or 
wires  that  can  be  touched  being  needed,  the  small 
cost  of  conduit  and  corresponding  small  cost  of 
alteration  of  track.  Another  advantage  is  that  by 
the  addition  of  one  contact  the  absolute  metallic 
return  for  the  current  can  be  made  by  way  of  the 
section  behind,  and  thus  the  difficulty  with  the  tele- 
phone companies  can  be  avoided — a  matter  impos- 
sible of  arrangement  with  most  systems  without 
costly  additions  to  the  mains.  The  cost  of  alteration 
of  track  and  laying  the  electric  conduit  is  estimated 
(the  figures  being  checked  by  Messrs.  Merry- 
weathers'  engineer)  as  £2,000  per  mile,  of  which  £25 


182      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

each  is  the  cost  of  commutator  boxes.  The  cost  of 
a  new  electric  car  would  be  £400.  He  estimates  the 
actual  cost  of  traction  at  2£d.  per  car  mile." 

Pollack  System. — In  this  system  there  is  a  middle 
contact  rail  in  short,  insulated  sections;  the  con- 
ductor carrying  the  current  lies  directly  beneath 
this  rail,  and  by  means  of  flexible  contacts  momen- 
tary connections  are  made  from  it  to  that  particular 
section  of  the  contact  rail  over  which  the  car  is  at 
that  moment.  These  temporary  connections  are 
made  by  the  aid  of  a  magnet  on  the  bottom  of  the 
car,  which,  in  passing  over,  attracts  iron  blocks 
under  the  rails,  making  contact  with  that  section. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  similar  to  the  Lineff 
system.  Pollack  claims  to  have  invented  it  in  1886, 
though  not  in  just  this  form,  which  he  devised  a 
year  later.  The  iron  contact  rails  are  double,  in 
order  that  the  magnetic  circuit  shall  be  open  at  the 
bottom,  thereby  developing  a  greater  magnetic  force 
there  than  if  a  single  band  of  iron  was  used,  through 
which  it  would  be  more  difficult  to  attract  a  mass  of 
iron  on  the  other  side  of  it.  Permanent  magnets  are 
to  be  used,  having  in  addition  a  winding  through 
which  the  current  may  be  passed  to  reinforce  them.  | 
The  independent  spaces  inclosing  the  movable 
blocks,  being  entirely  inclosed  by  asphalt,  may  be 
kept  dry.  As  there  are  two  contacts  to  each  sec- 
tion, ID  is  stated  that  there  is  no  sparking  at  these 
contacts,  as  the  current  is  never  interrupted  there. 
In  addition,  he  proposes  to  provide  the  car  with  a 
device  (presumably  some  accumulators)  to  drive  it 
back  on  to  the  rails  in  case  of  derailing.  This  sys- 
tem is  not  yet  in  use  anywhere.  If  these  contacts 


CONDUIT  AND  SURFACE   CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.    183 

can  really  be  kept  dry  and  free  from  sparks,  this 
system  looks  like  a  very  simple  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  an  underground  supply  for  the  current. 

Schuckert  System. — A  modification  of  this  was 
proposed  by  Schuckert  &  Co.,  of  Nuremberg.  It 
differed  in  the  nature  of  the  contacts,  which  were 
made  of  iron  filings  contained  in  little  chambers 
under  the  rail.  When  attracted  by  the  magnet  on 
the  car  they  bridged  over  from  the  main  to  the  con- 
tact rail,  making  the  necessary  connection.  The  con- 
ductor sections  are  laid  along  in  the  roadway  upon 
solid  wood  planks,  imbedded  in  the  ground,  under 
which  is  the  main  strip  conductor.  Each  wooden 
plank  is  pierced  downward  at  intervals  along  its 
length  by  taper  holes  of  li  inches  to  2  inches  dia- 
meter, which  have  the  smaller  diameter  at  the  top. 
Before  laying  the  iron  conductor  rails  over  the 
planks,  these  holes  are  each  partly  filled  with  a  hand- 
ful of  iron  filings,  which  drop  down  upon  the  main 
conductor.  As  the  tram  passes,  its  magnet  energizes 
the  roadway  beneath  it,  and  the  iron  filings  rise  in 
a  heap  and  make  contact  with  the  surface  con- 
ductor, falling  again  as  the  car  passes.  The  taper 
form  of  the  hole  prevents  their  continued  contact 
after  the  car  passes,  and  the  number  of  holes  and 
the  mass  of  filings  is  said  to  obviate  all  difficulty 
with  reference  to  contact  or  sparking.  It  is  claimed 
that  in  this  case  if  there  should  be  sparking  it 
would  do  no  harm,  as  the  iron  filings  would  always 
present  many  new  contacts.  It  is  not  in  operation 
at  present.  It  was  noticed  in  an  experimental  line 
that,  even  when  the  rest  of  the  street  appeared  dry, 
there  was  considerable  moisture  in  the  narrow  sec- 


184     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

tion  of  asphalt  which  separated  the  two  ends  of  the 
sections,  quite  sufficient  to  conduct  considerable 
current  from  one  to  the  next,  thereby  doing  just 
that  which  this  system  was  intended  to  avoid.  The 
iron  contact  rail  was  in  this  case  a  single  flat  band 
of  iron,  and  not  double  as  in  Pollack's  system.  It 
is  a  question  whether  the  iron  filings  will  behave  as 
they  are  intended  to  behave.  It  is  ingenious,  but 
can  hardly  be  called  a  good  mechanical  construc- 
tion. 

Edison's  Proposed  System. — During  the  month  of 
October,  Mr.  Edison  made  some  statements  to  the 
reporters  of  a  daily  paper,  regarding  a  new  system 
which  he  is  about  to  introduce.  His  published 
description  is  so  meager  and  unsatisfactory,  and 
the  language  used  is  such,  that  only  a  very  rough 
idea  can  be  obtained  from  it.  We  give  below  some 
points  gathered  from  these  short  reports  as  well  as 
from  other  sources. 

He  claims  that  he  will  be  able  to  obtain  a  speed  of 
100  miles  an  hour  with  great  ease  on  a  lOO-.pound 
rail,  on  a  rock-ballasted  track.  He  claims  that  it 
will  be  the  cheapest  system  known,  and  that  the 
plant  will  not  cost  half  as  much  as  the  cable  on  a 
cable  line.  He  claims  to  be  able  to  lay  a  mile  of 
track  in  a  single  night.  He  furthermore  expects  to 
get  one  horse-power  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  cheap 
coal,  while  a  steam  locomotive  requires  six  pounds 
of  expensive  coal. 

He  intends  to  begin  with  the  Chicago  and  Mil- 
waukee road,  at  the  time  of  the  World's  Fair,  on 
which  he  intends  to  run  a  train  of  two  cars  every 
20  minutes.  He  claims  that  there  are  special  engines 


CONDUIT   AND  SURFACE  CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.    185 

with  a  horse-power  of  10,000  and  12,000  each,  which 
would  run  the  whole  Pennsylvania  Railroad  sys- 
tem, between  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  includ- 
ing freight,  local  and  express  trains,  at  a  reduced 
expense,  with  much  less  depreciation  of  rail  stock 
and  roadbed.  There  are  said  to  be  400  or  500 
engines  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  one  time. 
He  furthermore  stated  that  he  will  soon  have  a 
track  for  demonstration  ready  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York. 

The  Edison  Monthly  Record  for  December  states: 
"Mr.  Edison  has  devised  the  new  system  for  roads 
of  heavy  traffic,  in  large  cities  where  the  expense 
of  the  original  installation  is  warranted  by  the 
traffic,  and  where  the  trolley  system  will  not  be  per- 
mitted. For  instance,  the  new  system  would  not 
be  applicable,  in  a  commercial  sense,  to  long  roads 
operating  less  than  fifty  cars  simultaneously.  It 
must  therefore  be  understood  that,  outside  of  the 
large  cities,  the  best  system  that  can  be  advocated 
is  the  trolley. " 

The  following  particulars  have  been  furnished  by 
Mr.  Edison :  "  The  overhead  system  is  entirely  dis- 
pensed with.  Cars,  trucks,  tracks,  and  roadbed, 
such  as  are  now  in  use,  are  retained,  certain  changes 
being  made  in  the  joints  and  cross-ties.  The  power, 
furnished  by  1,000-volt  generators,  is  distributed  to 
reducing  apparatus  placed  in  boiler-plate  manholes 
at  intervals  varying  in  accordance  with  the  number 
of  cars  required  to  be  operated.  At  these  various 
reducing  points  the  current  is  transformed  from 
1,000  volts  to  a  pressure  of  20  volts,  and  put  in  direct 
communication  with  the  tracksc  This  limit  of  20 


186     DECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

volts  is  fixed  in  order  to  prevent  horses  from  being 
affected  by  the  current.  The  economy  of  current  is 
about  the  same  as  with  the  present  system  of 
trolley. 

"The  car  motors  being  wound  with  uninsulated 
copper  wires,  and  the  pressure  of  current  being  so 
low,  there  is  entire  freedom  from  burning  out  of 
armatures,  as  water  can  be  poured  upon  the  arma- 
tures without  any  ill  effect.  The  problem  of  pro- 
ducing a  perfect  rail  joint,  and  the  picking  up  of  a 
heavy  current  from  a  mud -covered  rail,  has  been 
solved  in  a  practical  manner.  The  experimental  road 
at  Mr.  Edison's  laboratory  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
long,  with  a  six  per  cent,  grade  and  very  short 
curves.  It  is  operated  successfully  when  the  rails 
are  entirely  buried  in  mud  or  in  dry  sand. 

"Mr.  Edison  is  arranging  to  have  the  system 
placed  in  practical  operation  on  a  heavy  traffic  road 
in  some  large  city  (probably  New  York)  to  demon- 
strate its  practicability.  This  will  be  done  during 
the  coming  year." 

The  effect  which  the  announcement  of  this  system 
has  had  on  the  electric  railroad  industry  was  a  very 
harmful  one,  as  it  made  many  railway  companies 
hesitate  about  adopting  the  present  systems. 
Unless,  therefore,  Mr.  Edison  can  substantiate  what 
he  claims,  he  has  done  great  injury  to  the  industry, 
as  well  as  to  his  own  reputation. 

Commenting  on  this  system,  Professor  Elihu 
Thomson  says :  "  Of  course  every  electrician  knows 
as  well  as  I  that  the  conditions  of  practice  in  street 
railway  work  are  not  such  as  are  likely  to  permit 
any  such  scheme  to  have  a  ghost  of  a  chance  to 


CONDUIT  AND  SURFACE  CONDUCTOR  SYSTEMS.     187 

survive.  Certainly  such  statements,  coming  from  Mr. 
Edison,  are  calculated  to  retard  the  growth  of  the 
industry,  particularly  as  the  schemes  which  he  puts 
forward  as  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  street  rail- 
way work  have  not  reached  the  beginning  of  a 
demonstration  of  their  feasibility,  a  demonstration 
which  is  hardly  likely  ever  to  be  made." 

Professor  Sydney  H.  Short  says :  "  If  the  pressure 
is  so  low  that  it  will  do  no  harm  to  vehicles  or  ani- 
mals coming  in  contact  with  the  conductor,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  keep  contact  with  the  rails  through 
dust,  mud,  snow,  etc.;  it  is  now  a  very  common 
thing  for  a  car  operating  with  500  volts  pressure  to 
become  stranded  by  being  insulated  on  dry  dust  or 
on  snow.  The  question  of  resistance  comes  in  also, 
as  a  very  important  one.  The  resistance  across 
four  or  five  feet  of  wet  earth  from  one  rail  to  the 
other  in  a  track  several  miles  long  must  of  neces- 
sity be  very  low,  so  low  that  I  think  it  would  prac- 
tically short  circuit  the  rails.  It  troubles  me  to  think 
of  the  size  of  the  conductor  that  would  be  necessary 
to  carry  the  enormous  volume  of  current  needed  in 
such  a  system.  While  I  am  willing  and  anxious  to 
believe  it  possible  to  operate  street  railways  in  the 
manner  described,  my  experience  has  been  such  as 
to  make  me  incredulous." 

Mr.  O.  T.  Crosby  states:  "Plainly  stated,  the 
problem  of  high  speed  electrical  work  does  not 
demand  a  genius.  It  demands  good  railroading, 
good  engineering,  and  plenty  of  money.  A  current 
flowing  through  each  rail,  in  case  there  be  a  heavy 
traffic,  will  be  at  a  point  near  the  secondary  gener- 
ating station  (at  the  motor  dynamos)  anywhere 


188      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

from  1,000  to  3,500,  or  even  a  larger  number  of 
amperes.  What  this  will  do  at  the  rail  joint 
remains  to  be  seen.  It  is  also  a  subject  of  easy  cal- 
culation, to  determine  how  much  copper  must  be 
added  to  the  rail  in  order  that  the  loss,  at  20  volts 
even,  from  the  short  distances  in  question,  shall  not 
be  considerable.  Metal  tie  bars  joining  one  rail  to 
the  other  must  be  given  up,  or  be  used  with  non- 
metallic  bushings.  At  switches,  turnouts,  crossings, 
etc.,  the  problem  of  preventing  metallic  contact 
between  rails  on  opposite  sides  of  the  track  would 
be  one  which  would  startle  almost  any  practical 
track  builder  who  knows  the  difficulties  of  using 
anything  but  metal  in  track  construction.  Concern- 
ing the  matter  as  a  whole,  that  is,  the  transfer  from 
high  to  low  potential,  and  the  use  of  the  rails  as 
conductors,  it  presents  such  an  enormous  burden  in 
the  shape  of  first  cost  of  plant,  together  with  such 
unusually  large  transmission  losses  from  primary 
engine  to  the  motor  on  a  car,  and  requires  such 
apparently  impracticable  changes  in  ordinary  rail- 
roading methods,  that  in  my  opinion  nothing  save 
the  magic  of  Mr.  Edison's  name  could  obtain  for  it 
any  hearing  from  the  interested  public." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

STORAGE  BATTERY  SYSTEMS. 

From  the  published  expressions  of  a  number  of 
writers  it  appears  that  the  opinion  is  almost  uni- 
versal that  the  storage  battery  system  is  the  "  ideal" 
system ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  also  their  almost 


STORAGE    BATTERY   SYSTEMS.  189 

universal  opinion  that  it  has  not  yet  to-day  been 
developed  to  a  perfectly  satisfactory  system.  The 
fact  that  such  roads  have  been  abandoned,  that 
very  few  are  in  operation,  and  that  still  fewer  are 
contemplated  does  not  appear  to  be  a  favorable  state 
of  affairs.  The  objections,  however,  seem  to  be  all 
traceable  to  the  defects  of  the  batteries  and  not  to  the 
system,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  such  a  system 
requires  the  carrying  about  of  its  source  of  power. 
The  steam  locomotives  and  the  horse  cars  have  to  do 
the  same.  It  will  be  seen  from  some  of  the  plants 
described  below  that  the  weight  of  the  battery, 
though  large,  is  not  a  very  large  proportion,  being 
in  one  case  only  about  23  per  cent,  of  the  total  load. 
The  fault  appears  to  lie  in  the  fact  that  the  batteries 
cannot  stand  the  strain  of  the  heavy  output  required 
of  them  in  starting  the  car,  and  to  the  fact  that  they 
deteriorate  too  rapidly.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the 
battery  is  perfected,  storage  battery  traction  will 
take  a  much  more  prominent  place  among  the  other 
systems. 

Among  the  numerous  opinions  expressed  during 
the  past  year  on  this  system,  the  following  extracts 
will  give  a  very  good  summary  of  what  is  thought 
about  it. 

Mr.  F.  L.  Pope,  in  a  very  interesting  lecture,  made 
the  following  remarks  on  this  subject :  "  The  storage 
battery  system,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
public  and  of  the  street-car  manager,  is  an  ideal 
solution  of  the  problem  of  electrical  transportation. 
It  has  many  features  which  especially  commend  it 
for  city  work.  Each  car  is  an  independent  unit,  and 
hence  no  accident  can  materially  cripple  a  well 


190      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

organized  system.  The  idea  of  being  able  to  store 
a  large  quantity  of  electricity  in  a  box  under  the 
seats  of  a  car,  to  carry  it  around,  and  to  draw  from 
it  a  large  amount  of  power,  as  required,  is  a  most 
attractive  one.  Storage  battery  cars  can  be  intro- 
duced in  the  existing  systems,  one  car  at  a  time.  In 
cases  of  emergency  they  can  be  run  over  almost  any 
route  where  a  horse  car  can  be  run,  not  being 
restricted  to  the  route  of  an  electric  conductor,  and 
under  ordinary  circumstances  the  car  can  be  run 
just  as  rapidly  and  controlled  just  as  effectively  as 
it  can  be  with  the  trolley  system. 

"  All  these  advantages  were  recognized  at  an  early 
day,  and  hardly  had  the  storage  battery  been 
invented  before  it  was  applied  to  street-car  pro- 
pulsion. The  first  storage  car  was  operated  in  Paris, 
in  1882.  The  system  was  put  in  practical  service  on 
one  of  the  lines  in  Brussels,  Belgium,  and  continued 
for  two  years.  It  was  also  introduced  in  1886,  on 
the  Madison  avenue  line  in  New  York  city,  and  has 
been  in  operation  there  ever  since.  The  results  of 
the  ten  cars  now  running  on  the  Madison  avenue 
line  appear  to  have  demonstrated  that  the  system 
may,  with  careful  management,  be  made  thor- 
oughly reliable.  Each  car  will  carry  a  full  load  on 
a  straight  and  level  track  15  miles  per  hour,  and 
will  ascend  grades  not  exceeding  five  per  cent,  and 
not  more  than  500  feet  long  at  five  miles  per  hour. 
A  run  of  40  miles  can  be  made  on  a  level  track, 
which  is  considered  a  half  day's  work,  with  one 
charge  of  battery.  The  time  required  to  replace  the 
exhausted  batteries  with  fresh  ones  is  not  more  than 
two  minutes,  There  are,  however,  two  serious 


STORAGE  BATTERY  SYSTEMS.          191 

objections  to  this  system,  which  have  thus  far  been 
sufficient  to   prevent  its  adoption    in    other    than 
exceptional  cases.     One  of  these  is  the  great  weight 
of  the  batteries,  and  the  other  is  the  lack  of  reserve, 
power  in  the  emergencies  which  sometimes  occur. 
In  other  words,  two  considerations   enter  into  the 
question,  one  of  economy  and  the  other  of  efficiency. 
To  take  up  the  question  of   comparative  efficiency 
first,  a  very  little  consideration  of  the  matter  will 
show  that  the  progress   of  the   art,  so   far   as  yet 
developed,  practically  limits  the  use  of  storage  bat- 
tery  cars  to  lines   having  very  light  grades — not 
more  than  five  per  cent,  at  the  outside.    Very  many 
of  our  eastern  cities,  for  instance,  Springfield,  Provi- 
dence, Worcester,  Albany,  Troy,  and  many  others 
which  I  might  mention,  have  very  severe  grades, 
from  7  to  10  per  cent.,  and  some  of  them  half  a  mile 
long.     To  start  a  heavily  loaded  car  in  bad  weather 
on  such  a  grade  as  this  means  an  expenditure  for  a 
few  seconds  of  from  50  to  80  horse-power.     Experi- 
ence has  shown  that  this  is  far  too  heavy  a  tax  upon 
the  powers  of  a  storage  battery.     Even  on  compara- 
tively  level  lines,   in   our  northern    climates,   the 
occurrence  of  a  heavy  storm  of  snow  or  sleet  neces- 
sitates the  expenditure  of  an  abnormal  amount  of 
power,  and   it  is  on   just   such   occasions  as  these 
when  everybody  wants  to  ride,  so  that  the  cars  are 
loaded  to  their  utmost  capacity,  and  great  dissatis- 
faction prevails  if  there  is  any  delay  or  any  lack  of 
sufficient  accommodation.  It  is  at  such  times  as  this 
that  the  advantages  of  a  distribution  from  a  central 
station  are  most  apparent.      The  whole  number  of 
cars,  or  extra  ones,  if  necessary,  can  be  run,  and 


192      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

any  amount  of  power  required  to  force  them  through 
obstructions  and  to  keep  them  running  on  schedule 
time  can  be  supplied  from  the  power  station.  It  is 
merely  a  question  of  burning  more  coal. 

"Considering  the  economical  aspect  of  the  ques- 
tion, first,  as  to  the  original  cost,  it  may  be  said, 
roughly,  the  difference  between  the  storage  and 
overhead  line  system  is  not  very  great.  The  whole 
outfit,  exclusive  of  roadbed,  track  and  building,  for 
either  system,  will  aggregate  perhaps  $10,000  per 
car.  Now  as  to  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  opera- 
tion: 

"A  16-foot  car  with  two  motors,  such  as  are  most 
commonly  used,  will  weigh  8,000  pounds,  of  which 
4,000  is  electric  apparatus.  A  storage  battery  car  of 
the  same  size  and  capacity  weighs  14,000  pounds,  of 
which  3,800  is  battery.  A  full  load  may  be  estimated 
at  30  passengers,  weighing  about  4,000  pounds.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  storage  battery  car  weighs 
nearly  as  much  as  two  ordinary  electric  cars.  It 
seems  at  present  impracticable  to  operate  a  car 
with  less  than  3,800  pounds  weight  of  battery,  and 
unless  great  improvements  are  made  there  is  little 
reason  to  hope  that  this  weight  can  be  materially 
reduced. 

"What  is  termed  the  commercial  efficiency  of  an 
electric  railway  is  the  ratio  between  the  power  gen- 
erated by  the  steam  engine  and  that  exerted  upon 
the  car  wheels.  We  may  call  the  weight  of  the  car 
body  and  truck,  plus  the  full  load  of  passengers,  the 
useful  load.  The  best  authorities  seem  to  concur  in 
the  opinion  that  it  requires,  roughly  speaking,  nearly 
twice  as  much  power  per  unit  of  useful  work  done, 


STORAGE   BATTERY    SYSTEMS.  193 

with  the  storage  battery  system,  that  it  does  with 
the  direct  distribution  system.  The  dead  weight  of 
the  battery  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  a  paying  load 
of  30  passengers,  and  this  load  must  be  transported 
whether  there  are  any  passengers  or  not.  The 
increased  weight  adds  to  the  cost  of  renewal  and 
repairs,  both  of  the  track  and  of  the  cars. 

"  The  cost  of  horse  power  for  drawing  cars  has  been 
found  by  long  experience  to  rary  from  10  to  11  cents 
per  car  per  mile.  The  cost  of  power  for  the  ten 
storage  battery  cars  on  the  Madison  avenue  line  in 
New  York  is  said  to  figure  out  10.6  cents  per  car 
mile,  practically  the  same  as  horse  power.  A  care- 
ful computation  of  the  average  cost  of  power  by  the 
direct  distribution  system,  on  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  different  lines  in  this  country,  shows  that  the 
cost  for  coal,  atcendance,  real  estate,  oil  and  waste, 
repairs  of  machinery  and  line,  foots  up  5.09  cents 
per  car  per  mile.  I  am  now  speaking  solely  of  the 
cost  of  power ;  the  greater  part  of  the  expenses  of 
any  street  railway  company  remain  substantially 
unchanged,  whatever  kind  of  power  is  used. 

"  The  total  number  of  electric  cars  now  running 
in  this  country  is  probably  between  2,500  and  3,000. 
Of  the  whole  number,  I  presume  not  more  than  30 
or  40  are  operated  by  storage  batteries.  The  fact 
that  the  overhead  system,  though  introduced  at  a 
later  period  than  either  the  storage  system  or  the 
underground  distribution  system,  has  so  far  sur- 
passed them  both,  goes  far  to  show  that  as  yet  it  is 
the  only  system  which  has  been  able  to  meet  the 
various  exacting  requirements  of  our  street  railway 
service." 


194      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

In  a  report  on  the  various  systems,  Mr.  Knight 
Neftel  states  the  following  regarding  storage  bat- 
tery systems :  "  Owing  to  litigation  and  a  variety  of 
causes,  the  storage  battery  system  has  made  but  little 
material  progress  in  a  commercial  way  during  the 
past  year.  So  far,  primary  batteries  have  been  ap- 
plied only  to  the  operation  of  the  smallest  stationary 
motors.  Their  application  in  the  near  future  to  trac- 
tion may,  I  think,  be  entirely  disregarded.  Were  it 
not  a  purely  technical  matter,  it  might  easily  be 
demonstrated,  with  our  knowledge  of  electro-chem- 
istry, that  such  an  arrangement  as  an  electric  pri- 
mary battery  driving  a  car  is  an  impossibility.  In 
view  of  the  claims  of  certain  inventors,  I  regret  to 
be  obliged  to  make  so  absolute  a  statement,  but  the 
results  thus  far  have  produced  nothing  of  value. 

"The  application  of  secondary  or  storage  batter- 
ies to  electrical  traction  has  been  accomplished  in  a 
number  of  cities  with  a  varying  amount  of  success. 
Roads  equipped  by  batteries  have  now  been  suffi- 
ciently long  in  operation  to  allow  us  to  draw  some 
conclusions  as  to  the  practical  results  obtained  and 
what  is  possible  in  the  near  future.  The  advantages 
which  have  been  demonstrated  on  Madison  avenue, 
in  New  York;  Dubuque,  la.;  Washington,  D.  C., 
and  elsewhere,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

"First,  the  independent  feature  of  the  system. 
The  cars  being  independent  of  each  other,  are  free 
from  drawbacks  of  broken  trolley  wires  .temporary 
stoppages  at  the  power  station,  the  grounding  of 
one  motor  affecting  other  motors,  and  sudden  and 
severe  strains  upon  the  machinery  at  the  power 
station,  such  as  frequently  occur  in  direct  systems : 


STORAGE  BATTERY   SYSTEMS.  195 

the  absence  of  all  street  structures  and  repairs  to 
the  same,  and  the  loss  by  grounds  and  leakages  are 
also  very  considerable  advantages  both  as  to 
economy  and  operation, 

"  Second,  the  comparatively  small  space  required 
for  the  power  station.  Each  car  being  provided  with 
two  or  more  sets  of  batteries,  the  same  can  be 
charged  at  a  uniform  rate  without  undue  strain  on 
the  machinery  of  the  power  station,  and  as  it  can  be 
done  more  rapidly  than  the  discharge  required  for 
the  operation,  of  the  motors,  a  less  amount  of  gen- 
eral machinery  is  necessary  for  a  given  amount  of 
work. 

"  Another  and  important  advantage  of  the  system 
is  the  low  pressure  of  the  current  used  to  supply  the 
motors  and  the  consequent  increased  durability  of 
the  motor,  and  practically  absolute  safety  to  life 
from  electrical  shock.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
also  that  the  cars  can  be  easily  handled  in  the  street, 
run  at  any  desired  speed,  and  reversed  with  far 
more  safety  to  the  armature  of  the  motor  than  in 
the  direct  system.  The  increased  weight  requires 
simply  more  brake  leverage. 

"The  modern  battery,  improved  in  many  of  its 
details  during  the  last  year,  is  still  an  unknown 
quantity  as  to  durability.  There  is  the  same  doubt 
concerning  this  as  there  was  at  the  time  incan- 
descent lamps  were  first  introduced.  At  that  time 
some  phenomenal  records  were  made  by  lamps 
grouped  with  other  lamps.  Similarly,  some  plates 
appear  to  be  almost  indestructible,  while  others, 
made  practically  in  the  same  manner,  deteriorate 
within  a  very  short  time.  It  is  consequently  very 


190      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

difficult  as  yet  to  exactly  and  fairly  place  a  limit  on 
the  life  of  the  positive  plates.  Speaking  simply 
from  observation  of  a  large  number  of  plates  of 
various  kinds,  I  am  inclined  to  put  the  limit  at 
about  eight  months,  though  it  is  claimed  by  some 
of  the  more  prominent  manufacturers — and  undoubt- 
edly it  is  true  in  special  cases — that  entire  elements 
have  lasted  ten  months,  and  even  longer.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  jolting  and 
handling:  to  which  these  batteries  are  subjected  in 
traction  work  increases  the  tendency  to  disinte- 
grate, buckle,  and  short  circuit;  and  that  the 
record  for  durability  for  this  application  can  never 
be  the  same  as  for  stationary  work. 

"  A  serious  inconvenience  to  the  use  of  batteries  in 
traction  work  is  the  necessary  presence  of  the  liquid 
in  the  jars.  This  causes  the  whole  equipment  to  be 
somewhat  cumbersome,  and  unless  arranged  with 
great  care,  and  with  a  variety  of  devices  lately 
designed,  a  source  of  considerable  annoyance.  The 
connections  between  the  plates,  which  formerly 
gave  so  much  trouble  by  breaking  off,  have  been 
perfected  so  as  to  prevent  this  difficulty,  and  the 
shape  of  the  jars  has  been  designed  to  prevent  the 
spilling  of  the  acid  while  the  car  is  running.  The 
car  seats  are  now  practically  hermetically  sealed, 
so  that  the  escaping  gases  are  not  offensive  to  the 
passengers. 

"  The  handling  of  the  batteries  is  an  exceedingly 
important  consideration.  Many  devices  have  been 
invented  to  render  this  easy  and  cheap.  I  have  wit- 
nessed the  changing  of  batteries  in  a  car,  one  set 
|>eing  taken  out  and  a  charged  set  replaced  by  four 


STORAGE  BATTERY  SYSTEMS.         197 

men  in  the  short  space  of  three  minutes.  This  is 
accomplished  by  electrical  elevators,  which  move 
the  batteries  opposite  the  car,  and  upon  the  plat- 
forms of  which  the  discharged  elements  are  again 
charged. 

"In  the  past  four  years  a  great  change  has  come 
over  everything  connected  with  the  storage  battery 
as  regards  the  plates,  and  the  shape  has  changed 
completely,  so  that  the  storage  battery  of  to-day,  as 
manufactured  by  the  leading  companies,  is  an 
entirely  new  thing.  I  remember  five  years  ago 
receiving  a  letter  from  the  Thomson-Houston  com- 
pany, which  I  have  preserved  as  a  curiosity,  asking 
me  whether  I  thought  electric  traction  would  ever 
be  successful,  and  whether  it  would  pay  an  electric 
light  company  to  manufacture  motors  for  electric 
traction.  In  the  light  of  the  developments  made  in 
the  past  in  the  general  field  of  electric  traction,  we 
should  not  cast  discredit  on  the  stora,ge  battery,  or 
throw  it  aside  as  a  failure. 

"I  think  it  is  a  mistake  to  expect  batteries  to 
make  a  long  run.  If  we  have  a  perfected  storage 
battery  system,  it  will  not  be  a  system  in  which  our 
cars  will  run  100  to  200  miles;  but  it  will  be  a  sys- 
tem in  which  each  car  will  make  one  trip,  then 
newly  charged  batteries  will  be  put  in  the  car.  The 
batteries  can  be  changed  easily,  and  there  is  no 
earthly  object  in  dragging  them  along  for  30,  40,  or 
50  miles ;  it  is  taking  along  an  unnecessary  weight 
in  lead. 

"The  general  conclusions  which  the  year's  experi- 
ence and  progress  have  afforded  us  an  opportunity 
to  make  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  Storage 


198     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

battery  cars  are  as  yet  applicable  only  to  those 
roads  which  are  practically  level,  where  the  direct 
system  cannot  be  used,  and  where  cable  traction 
cannot  be  used;  and  applicable  to  these  roads  only 
at  about  the  same  cost  as  horse  traction.  I  feel  justi- 
fied in  making  this  statement  in  view  of  the  guaran- 
tees which  some  of  the  more  prominent  manufac- 
turers of  batteries  are  willing  to  enter  into,  and 
which  practically  insure  the  customer  against  loss 
due  to  deterioration  of  plates,  leaving  the  question 
of  the  responsibility  of  the  company  the  only  one 
for  him  to  look  into. " 

Mr.  E.  A.  Scott  states :  "  I  have  seen  the  changing 
of  the  plates  done  in  the  Dubuque  road  in  about  30 
seconds,  so  that  the  question  whether  a  storage  bat- 
tery car  will  run  100  miles  without  recharging,  or 
50  miles,  does  not  become  a  matter  of  importance. 
There  is  no  more  necessity  to  run  a  battery  100 
miles  than  there  is  of  making  a  pair  of  horses  pull 
a  car  that  distance.  You  can  work  a  pair  of  horses 
until  they  drop  in  their  tracks,  and  you  can  do  the 
same  with  a  battery  until  it  becomes  exhausted,  but 
there  is  no  necessity  in  either  case.  We  calculate 
to  run  about  20  or  25  miles  before  we  make  a  change 
of  batteries,  and  if  they  are  run  in  that  way  in  a 
road  where  grades  do  not  exist  beyond  five  or  six 
per  cent.,  there  is  no  trouble.  The  question  of  how 
expensive  the  system  is  going  to  be  is  controlled  by 
the  question  of  how  often  you  are  going  to  renew 
the  positive  plates.  We  believe  from  what  we  know 
that  the  cost  of  running  is  considerably  less  than 
horses,  although  we  have  no  figures  to  show.  We 
believe  that  in  about  one  year  it  can  be  run  in  com- 


STORAGE  BATTERY  SYSTEMS.  199 

petition,  so  far  as  economy  is  concerned,  with  any 
overhead  system. 

"  When  a  car  is  run  about  20  miles  at  the  ordinary 
street-car  speed,  it  will  take  about  two  and  one-half 
hours  to  charge  the  batteries  for  that  20  miles  or 
more;  but  practice  has  shown  us  that  it  is  very 
foolish  to  draw  out  the  entire  charge  of  the  battery. 
The  question  of  how  long  the  battery  will  run  before 
it  will  absolutely  break  down  ought  not  to  be  con- 
sidered for  a  moment,  because  it  is  very  bad  prac- 
tice— that  is  the  thing  which  destroys  the  cells.  If 
the  cells  are  properly  used  in  this  respect,  the  bat- 
teries will  last  a  long  time,  for  many  months.  I 
know  of  one  plant  in  Philadelphia  in  the  lighting 
service  that  has  run  five  years  without  change. 

"As  to  the  amount  of  power  that  is  required  to 
run  a  storage  battery  car,  I  took  for  one  week  the 
mileage  of  the  cars  on  the  Dubuque  road,  and  also 
measured  at  the  dynamo  the  amount  of  power  put 
into  the  batteries.  I  was  enabled  to  get  from  the 
mileage  of  the  cars  the  amount  of  horse-power  it 
took  per  car  mile,  and  it  was  a  little  less  than  one  and 
one-half  per  car  mile.  The  road  has  grades  of  over 
six  per  cent ;  on  a  level  road  I  have  no  doubt  it  can 
be  done  with  less  power.  On  one  road  it  averaged 
for  six  months  in  a  commercial  way  eight-tenths  of 
a  horse-power  per  car  mile." 

Mr.  Crosby  states:  "No  doubt  the  future  has 
within  it  such  possibilities  as  none  of  us,  I  think, 
should  dare  to  measure  to-day.  I  even  go  so  far  as 
to  say  that  I  believe  in  the  future  that  it  will  be  pos- 
sible to  propel  a  car  by  electricity  without  tying  it 
by  a  string  to  the  station.  The  trouble  is  we  do  not 


200     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

see  how  to  do  it  at  the  present  time.  I  think  we  can 
leave  the  matter  for  a  time  to  those  who  are  hard  at 
work  upon  it." 

Mr.  F.  H.  Monks  states :  "  Perhaps  the  ideal  sys- 
tem of  application  is  through  the  accumulator  or 
storage  battery.  But  can  it  be  shown  that  any  stor- 
age battery  system  has  proved  commercially  suc- 
cessful after  thorough  and  practical  tests  actually 
conducted  for  a  period  of  12  months  upon  a  city 
road?  Storage  battery  cars  have  been  exhaustively 
tried  in  England  for  several  years,  and  the  latest 
reports  from  that  country  show  that  no  degree  of 
commercial  success  has  been  attained  to  date.  The 
result  in  this  country  seems  to  be  the  same.  Now 
and  again  we  have  been  assured  that  a  new  inven- 
tion in  the  storage  battery  field  has  been  found, 
which  will  surely  meet  with  commercial  success  in 
operation,  but  the  report  of  actual  tests  and  results 
in  proof  thereof  is  lacking.  Personally,  I  have  faith 
to  believe  it  will  come  some  day.  Perhaps  it  is  near 
at  hand." 

Mr.  Montague  states:  "I  have  seen  within  three 
months  a  storage  battery  car  that  will  take  85  pas- 
sengers on  a  16-foot  car,  and  carry  them  up  a  grade 
of  10  per  cent.,  and  do  it  steadily  and  easily.  It 
takes  an  hour  and  thirty  minutes  to  charge  the 
batteries.  They  do  not  allow  the  batteries,  as  a  rule, 
to  run  more  than  20  to  22  miles;  but  on  one  day 
three  cars  ran  respectively  42,  46,  and  48  miles,  and 
when  they  got  back  to  the  power  house  the  engineer 
had  gone  home,  and  they  remained  outside  all 
night.  In  the  morning  there  was  sufficient  power 
left  in  the  batteries  to  take  the  cars  into  the  power 


STORAGE  BATTERY    SYSTEMS.  201 

house.  It  takes  about  30  seconds  to  change  the 
batteries.  These  cars  run  on  level  ground  at  a  speed 
faster  than  most  city  governments  will  permit,  and 
in  mounting  grades  they  go  quite  fast.  On  one  occa- 
sion when  a  car  was  mounting  a  grade  with  30  peo- 
ple in  it,  I  got  out  and  walked  alongside  of  the  car, 
and  not  until  it  had  reached  the  top  could  I  keep  up 
with  it.  The  grade  was  about  five  per  cent,  There 
are  six  cars  running  now." 

Mr.  Bar r  states:  "The  Lehigh  Avenue  Passenger 
Railway,  in  Philadelphia,  was  built  to  operate  stor- 
age battery  cars.  In  May,  1890,  the  road  started 
with  six  storage  battery  cars.  In  October,  1890, 
application  was  made  to  the  Philadelphia  Council 
for  the  use  of  the  overhead  system,  claiming  that 
unless  they  could  use  it  they  would  have  to  abandon 
the  road.  The  Council  refused  permission  to  the 
company  to  use  the  overhead  wire,  and  on  January 
1,  1891,  the  storage  battery  cars  were  abandoned, 
and  the  road  has  since  been  operated  by  horse 
power." 

Mr.  Vhay  states :  "  I  represent  a  road  which  per- 
haps experimented  with  the  storage  battery  system 
more  than  any  other  road  in  the  country.  The 
Woodward  storage  battery  car  was  put  on  our  road 
for  about  a  year  and  a  half.  The  system  worked 
very  well ;  the  cars  ran  at  the  rate  of  about  12  or  14 
miles  an  hour.  The  cost  for  coal  was  considerable, 
however — ten  dollars  a  day — and  it  seemed  to  take 
from  seven  to  ten  hours  to  charge  the  plates,  while 
it  is  not  possible  for  the  car  to  make  over  35  miles 
a  day.  There  were  no  grades,  but  some  sharp 
curves.  We  thought  that  considering  the  expense 


202     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

and  getting  only  30  miles  out  of  the  battery,  it  was 
not  much  of  a  commercial  success." 

Mr.  Everett  states:  "Almost  all  street  railway 
men  admit  that  the  storage  system,  if  successful, 
would  be  the  ideal  system,  and  all  hope  for  its  ulti- 
mate achievement;  and  in  this  age  of  progress  it 
would  be  very  short-sighted  and  bigoted  to  say  that 
it  will  never  come." 

Descriptive. 

Barking  Road  (London). — This  line  was  started 
about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1890,  and  has  been 
in  regular  service  since.  The  contract  with  the 
parent  company  was  to  run  the  cars  at  4jd.  (9  cts.) 
per  car  mile,  driver  included.  The  generating  sta- 
tion cost  £3,500;  6  cars  at  £450  each  (batteries  £300 
per  car) ;  during  the  first  12  months  5  cars  ran  with 
regularity  which  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  The 
road  is  fairly  level  and  considered  in  good  repair. 
The  cars  weigh  3.275  tons;  the  motors  and  gear,  1.36 
tons;  the  batteries,  2.4  tons  (22.6  per  cent,  of  the 
total  weight,  loaded);  the  passengers,  3.6  tons;  the 
total  rolling  load,  10.63  tons,  of  which  34  per  cent,  is 
paying  and  23  per  cent,  is  battery. 

The  following  figures  were  supplied  by  Mr.  Fra- 
zer,  one  of  the  contracting  company's  engineers: 
Number  of  car  miles  run,  100,844;  running  expenses, 
£3,390;  wages  at  generating  station,  £677;  wages  of 
drivers,  £602;  fuel,  £434;  oil,  £64;  balance,  £1,613 
(not  £1,777,  as  was  reported),  for  depreciation  and 
repairs.  The  battery  depreciation  and  repairs 
amounted  to  £1,184,  or  66  per  cent,  of  the  prime  cost, 
which  alone  added  2.8d.  to  the  cost  per  car  mile. 


STORAGE  BATTERY  SYSTEMS.          203 

The  motor  repairs  are  given  as  £1,000,  or  .428d.  per 
car  mile;  this  first  figure  (1,000)  must  be  a  mistake, 
as  it  does  not  check  with  the  total.  Assuming  the 
latter  (.428)  to  be  correct,  the  motor  repairs  were 
£178,  leaving  £251  for  other  expenses.  The  item  of 
depreciation  of  the  electric  plant  on  the  car  alone 
amounted  to  nearly  3|d.  per  car  mile.  The  mere 
haulage  expenses  amounted  to  within  2d.  of  the 
total  cost  of  tramway  working  in  London,  and  have 
exceeded  the  cost  of  horse  haulage  by  about  the 
same  amount.  The  result  of  the  first  year's  working 
has  been  a  loss  of  nearly  £1,500;  the  running 
expenses  per  mile  having  been  8d.  instead  of  4^d. 
The  figures  regarding  the  subdivision  of  the  items 
of  expenses  will  be  found  tabulated  and  reduced  to 
comparative  figures  under  the  heading  "Cost  of 
Operating,"  where  they  are  compared  with  those  of 
other  roads. 

Other  Accumulator  Plants. — The  following  data 
were  published  about  some  of  the  accumulator  roads 
now  running: 

Hague  (Holland). — Six  accumulator  cars  are  now 
running  from  the  Hague  to  the  Casino  at  Scheven- 
ing,  a  distance  of  about  3  miles.  The  speed  of 
running  is  12  miles  an  hour,  including  stops. 
The  loaded  car  weighs  16  tons;  it  is  32  feet 
long,  carries  68  passengers,  and  the  battery  of  accu- 
mulators weighs  4  tons.  The  cars,  constructed  at 
Harlem,  have  two  bogies  of  two  axles  each.  Only 
one  bogie  is  driven,  having  its  wheels  coupled 
together.  The  axles  are  connected  to  the  motor  by 
solid  gearing,  and  the  whole  weight  is  carried  by 
the  axles.  The  motor  is  supplied  by  carbon  brushes 


204      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

from  a  battery  of  192  Julien  accumulators,  weigh- 
ing 40  pounds  each.  This  battery,  when  charged, 
provides  current  for  a  run  of  45  miles,  after  which 
the  cars  return  for  change  of  cells.  The  accumu- 
lators are  arranged  in  eight  boxes  or  drawers, 
weighing  half  a  ton  each,  placed  under  the  seats. 
The  ear  is  provided  with  switches  and  resistances 
to  allow  the  speed  to  be  varied.  The  changing  of 
the  sets  of  cells  is  carried  out  by  the  aid  of  a  special 
mechanical  arrangement  to  allow  rapid  handling. 
Two  sets  of  turntables  and  rolling  carriers  are 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  charging  bench.  The  draw- 
ers, when  taken  from  the  car,  slide  easily  on  rollers 
placed  on  the  bench  and  turntables,  the  operation 
of  changing  requiring  five  minutes.  The  spare  sets 
of  cells  are  always  being  charged  as  the  others  are 
being  used.  The  connections  are  made  with  spring 
contacts  arranged  so  that  no  mistake  can  occur.  It 
is  intended  to  settle  the  question  of  maintenance  by 
the  erection  of  a  small  manufactory  of  battery 
plates  on  the  spot,  with  a  laboratory. 

Lyons  (France). — The  car  is  fitted  with  a  motor 
by  Alroth.  of  Basle,  the  current  being  supplied  by 
112  Faure-Sellon-Volckmar  cells  weighing  2i  tons, 
the  gearing  being  a  Gall  steel  chain.  The  cells  are 
placed  under  the  seats  and  in  two  cupboards  at  the 
end,  and  the  motor  is  placed  beneath  the  car  floor, 
so  that  nothing  is  seen  but  the  switch  handle  along- 
side that  of  the  brake.  The  total  weight  of  the 
loaded  car  may  be  analyzed  thus  (giving  the  weights 
in  hundredweights) :  Car  104,  motor  13£,  switch  and 
resistance  2,  40  passengers  53,  battery  47;  total, 
about  11  tons.  The  accumulators  can  be  connected 


STORAGE   BATTERY   SYSTEMS.  205 

in  four  different  ways,  corresponding  with  50,  100, 
100  and  200  volts  for  80,  40,  20  and  20  amperes 
respectively.  The  various  couplings  are  brought 
about  by  a  set  of  brush  contacts  under  the  car, 
moved  by  a  handle  with  dial  and  figures.  At  normal 
speed,  7-J  miles  an  hour  (12  kilometres)  on  the  level, 
the  current  is  used  at  10  amperes,  rising  to  30  and 
45  on  gradients.  The  capacity  of  the  battery  is  150 
ampere  hours,  so  that  a  minimum  run  of  eight  hours 
can  be  achieved  without  recharge.  The  lighting  of 
the  car  is  taken  off  the  cells  at  50  volts.  So  far  the 
experiment  appears  to  have  been  very  successful, 
and  the  director  seems  strongly  inclined  to  increase 
the  number  of  electric  cars. 

Siemens  &  Halske  road  at  the  Frankfort  Exhibi- 
tion.— The  car  had  two  motors,  each  from  8  to  10 
horse-power ;  they  are  very  easily  replaced  in  case 
of  any  accident  or  repairs.  There  are  162  cells  of 
batteries  of  the  Tudor  system  (a  modified  Plante 
cell),  weighing  about  2,200  pounds.  The  weight  of 
the  car  without  passengers  is  said  to  be  about  17,600 
pounds,  and  it  carries  about  40  passengers.  The 
cells  are  used  in  three  parallel  sets  of  54  cells  (of 
about  110  volts)  each;  for  starting  they  use  a 
smaller  number  of  cells,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  an 
imperfect  system,  as  the  cells  are  thereby  unevenly 
discharged.  It  takes  45  to  48  amperes  to  start  the 
car.  They  will  run  for  about  five  and  one-half 
hours.  The  brushes  are  of  carbon  as  usual.  This 
system  is  not  in  practical  use  at  present,  but  they 
are  experimenting  with  it  in  Budapest. 

Dubuque  (la.)  Storage  Battery  Railway. — A  full 
description  of  this  road,  which  has  now  been 


206      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

changed  to  a  trolley  road,  will  be  found  on  page  <>1 
of  the  issue  of  The  Electrical  World  for  July  25, 1891. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

UNDERGROUND  (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM. 

As  the  requirements  and  the  engineering  features 
of  an  electric  road  running  in  underground  tunnels 
are  so  very  different  from  those  of  surface  lines, 
they  have  here  been  placed  under  a  separate  hea'ding. 
The  contact  wire,  feeders,  grades,  curves,  and  many 
other  features,  are  entirely  different,  and  in  many 
cases  much  simpler  than  in  surface  roads.  The  size 
of  the  units,  the  speed  and  the  less  frequent  stops, 
particularly  when  compared  to  surface  roads  in  a 
city  with  dense  traffic,  are  all  much  more  favora- 
ble than  in  surface  roads. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  branch  in  electric  railway 
engineering  that  is  of  such  importance  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  and  that  has  such  a  good  immediate  future 
as  electric  underground  roads.  The  first  road  of 
this  kind  which  was  built,  and  which  was  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  an  experiment,  has  proven  so  successful 
that  the  same  parties  soon  after  contemplated  a 
second  and  larger  line,  which  was  followed  very 
rapidly  by  propositions  for  similar  lines  in  Paris, 
New  York,  and  a  third  road  in  London.  That  such 
a  system  has  no  rival,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
steam  roads  of  a  similar  kind,  such  as  have  been 
running  in  London  for  many  years,  have  proven  to 
be  unsatisfactory  as  far  as  comfort  to  passengers 
is  concerned,  as  well  as  in  other  features.  The 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  207 

fact  has  already  been  demonstrated  that  individual 
motors  are  much  more  economical  than  individual 
steam  engines,  as  they  derive  their  power  from  a 
central  station  where  large  steam  engines  can  be 
run  to  a  much  greater  advantage  than  the  small 
inefficient  engines  on  locomotives.  There  are  numer- 
ous other  evident  advantages,  such,  for  instance,  as 
the  fact  that  the  air  is  not  vitiated  by  the  smoke 
and  products  of  combustion,  including  obnoxious 
sulphurous  vapor,  that  the  tunnel  may  be  made 
much  smaller,  that  the  rolling  stock,  and  conse- 
quently the  roadbed,  may  be  made  much  lighter, 
and  that  the  train  may  be  controlled  entirely  from 
stationary  block  stations,  instead  of  relying  on  sig- 
nals, which,  as  was  shown  in  a  recent  fatal  acci- 
dent in  New  York  City,  cannot  be  relied  upon  in 
the  smoky  atmosphere  of  a  tunnel  for  a  steam  road. 
The  units  may  also  be  made  smaller,  and  the  inter- 
vals between  trains  therefore  more  frequent  than 
would  be  economical  in  a  steam  road.  We  believe 
that  it  is  not  over  sanguine  to  state  that  before  the 
next  year  is  over  extensive  roads  on  this  plan  will 
not  only  be  contemplated,  but  perhaps  also  in  course 
of  construction. 

Mr.  F.  L.  Pope,  in  referring  to  the  underground 
tunnel  systems,  terms  them  "the  most  important 
development  of  electric  transportation  which  has 
yet  come  before  the  public."  Referring  to  the  Lon- 
don road  and  to  a  contemplated  similar  road  in  New 
York,  he  states:  "This  undertaking  having  been 
placed  in  the  hands  of  electrical  engineers  whose 
competency  cannot  be  questioned,  and  backed  by 
ample  capital,  has  proved  in  London  a  phenomenal 


208      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

success.  We  are  now  assured  that  a  syndicate  of 
the  most  prominent  capitalists  of  New  York  have 
undertaken  to  establish  a  system  of  transportation 
upon  the  same  plan,  consisting  of  a  network  of  tun- 
nels at  a  depth  of  100  feet  beneath  the  surface,  and 
connecting  all  important  points  not  only  in  the  city 
itself,  but  in  the  adjacent  sections  of  Long  Island 
and  New  Jersey.  In  such  a  system  it  necessarily 
follows  that  the  train  must  be  run  by  electricity  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  other  power. 

"Statistics  show  that  the  traffic  of  the  horse  cars 
and  elevated  lines  in  New  York  has  increased  46 
per  cent,  within  the  five  years  from  1884  to  1889.  A 
careful  estimate  which  has  recently  been  made  of 
the  movement  of  passengers  in  and  about  New  York 
during  the  year  1890  gives  the  following  amazing 
result : 

New  York  city  (surface  and  elevated  roads) 400,000,000 

Brooklyn  Bridge 38,000,0'X) 

Lonir  Island  ferries 90,000,000 

Staten  Island  and  New  Jersey  ferries 85,000,000 

Total 603,000,000 

"  If  the  profit  derived  from  carrying  these  passen- 
gers amounts  to  only  one  cent  each  per  trip,  it 
nevertheless  figures  up  to  the  snug  little  sum  of 
$6,000,000  per  annum,  which  makes  a  very  com- 
fortable dividend  upon  a  capital  of  $100,000,000. 
Such  a  system  would  admit  of  the  running  of  solid 
trains  at  very  short  invervals  through  the  city,  to 
and  from  all  points  in  the  suburbs,  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  I  venture  here  and  now  to  predict  that 
within  the  next  20  years,  if  not  the  next  10  years, 
electrical  underground  transportation  will  be 
brought  to  such  a  state  of  perfection  that  a  passen- 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  209 

ger  entering  one  of  the  central  stations  of  New  York 
may  be  deposited  at  his  home  station  at  any  point 
within  a  radius  of  10  miles  in  15  minutes'  time  at  a 
fare  of  five  cents.  And  the  magnificent  result  is  to 
be  the  contribution  to  the  convenience  and  the  pros- 
perity of  the  public  of  the  electrical  engineer." 

Referring  to  the  requirements  of  an  electric 
underground  system,  Mr.  Stephen  D.  Field  stated: 
"In  such  an  underground  installation,  using 
numerous  power  stations,  very  high  potential, 
say  1,500  volts  or  more,  can  be  safely  employed, 
with  consequent  economy  of  operation.  There  is 
one  very  important  point  on  which  the  comfort  of 
travel  materially  depends.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  deaden  vibration  caused  by  the  movement 
of  the  trains;  continuous  rails  should  be  used, 
which,  together  with  composition  wheels  and 
upholstered  carriages,  will  do  much  to  further  this 
result.  The  locomotives  should  be  'direct  coupled/ 
and  in  no  case  should  the  armature  be  placed  direct 
on  the  axle  without  the  intervention  of  springs. 
The  power  stations  should  be  located  at  the  middle 
and  at  either  end  of  the  line.  Two  insulated  con- 
ductors would  lead  from  these  stations  along  the 
top  of  the  tunnel.  The  conductors  should  be  of  soft 
iron,  suspended  from  the  tunnel  roof  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  readily  accessible  for  repairs  and 
cleaning  of  insulators.  The  insulators  should  be 
very  strong  and  of  great  electrical  resistance.  Con- 
tact with  the  power  conductors  could  be  best  secured 
by  means  of  a  'magnetic  trolley,'  which  gives  great 
adhesive  contact  without  much  weight  or  resistance 
to  rotation.  Greater  economy  of  operation  will  be 


210      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

secured  if  one  large  tunnel  be  used  for  two  lines  of 
tracks  instead  of  a  single  tunnel  for  each.  In  the 
first  case  the  air  displaced  by  the  moving  train  can 
find  room  for  circulation,  while  in  the  latter  it  must 
be  almost  wholly  forced  out  by  each  train.  At  mod- 
erately high  speeds  this  becomes  a  factor  of  great 
resistance.  In  either  case,  however,  plenty  of  air 
movement  for  thorough  ventilation  will  be  secured 
by  the  passage  of  the  trains." 

Further  discussions  on  underground  roads,  which 
space  prevents  us  from  reprinting  here,  may  be 
found  in  The  Electrical  World,  page  247,  March  28; 
page  196,  March  7;  page  402,  May  30;  page  437, 
June  13. 

Descriptive. 

City  and  South  London  Underground  Railroad. — 
Owing  to  the  impossibility  of  getting  reliable  tech- 
nical data  and  detailed  descriptions,  the  following 
short  description  and  criticism  has  to  be  limited  to 
such  parts  as  could  be  seen  from  personal  inspec- 
tion, and  to  data  obtained  directly  and  indirectly 
from  various  sources.  The  officials,  though  court- 
eous, evaded  or  declined  to  answer  questions  regard- 
ing details. 

This  railroad  is  the  first  and  at  present  the  only 
underground  electrical  railroad  running  through  a 
large  city  for  furnishing  rapid  transit  between 
points  in  the  city/  The  road  starts  at  Monument 
station,  not  far  from  London  Bridge,  which  is  near 
the  busiest  part  of  London,  crosses  under  the  River 
Thames,  and  continues  in  a  slightly  winding  course 
under  the  streets,  entirely  through  built  up  portions 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  211 

of  the  city,  to  the  district  called  Stockwell.  Its  course 
forms  to  a  certain  extent  a  sort  of  diameter  to  the 
circular  course  of  the  local  stearn  railroad  lines. 
The  tunnel  itself  consists  of  two  lines  of  circular 
subways,  one  for  the  up  and  one  for  the  down 
trains,  sometimes  located  side  by  side,  and  some- 
times over  each  other.  The  tunnels  are  over  each 
other  at  various  places,  partly  to  avoid  encroaching 
on  private  property,  and  partly  so  that  at  the  sta- 
tions one  elevator  may  be  used  for  both  lines,  instead 
of  two,  one  on  each  side  of  the  street.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  cost  of  excavating  and  lining  is  less  for  two 
small  tunnels  than  for  one  large  one.  The  tunnels 
are  made  of  a  circular  steel  cylinder  10  feet  6  inches 
in  diameter  inside  of  the  flanges  and  formed  of 
rings  of  cast  iron  segments  bolted  together  at  their 
internal  flanges.  The  rings  are  1  foot  7  inches  long. 
The  circular  joints  are  made  with  tarred  rope  and 
cement,  and  the  longitudinal  joints  with  thin  strips 
of  pine  wood.  The  surfaces  are  not  planed,  but 
remain  just  as  they  came  from  the  foundry.  The 
tunnels  pass  for  the  most  part  through  clay,  and 
! partly  through  sand  and  gravel.  The  tunnel  was 
driven  by  hydraulic  cutters,*  the  whole  being  done 
without  the  slightest  interference  with  the  traffic 
along  any  of  the  thoroughfares  under  which  it  was 
being  built,  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
residents  of  the  city.  The  line  of  the  two  tunnels 
as  they  pass  under  the  River  Thames  is  not  by  any 
means  a  level  one.  The  greatest  up  grade  is  1  in  30, 
at  the  river,  but  otherwise  the  road  is  practically 

*  For  a  detailed  description  spe  The  Engineer,  London.  June  7, 1889,  p.  477, 
third  column. 


212      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

level.  The  north  end  of  the  road,  which  is  near  the 
river,  is  about  80  to  90  feet  below  the  street,  but  the 
average  depth  is  much  less  than  this,  though  it  is 
said  to  be  deep  enough  to  pass  under  ail  sewers  and 
pipes. 

At  each  station  there  is  a  large  hydraulic  eleva- 
tor, the  power  for  which  is  supplied  by  pipes  from 
the  main  power  station,  which  is  at  the  Stockwell 
end.  Why  such  a  cumbersome  method  was  used 
instead  of  electricity  is  difficult  to  see ;  perhaps  it 
was  because  the  original  intention  was  to  run  the 
trains  by  cable ;  perhaps  also  because  the  promoters 
were  civil  and  not  electrical  engineers,  who  were 
not  sufficiently  well  posted  on  the  advantages  of 
electrical  elevators,  and  therefore  resorted  to  the 
older  and  more  primitive  method.  If  electricity  can 
be  relied  upon  to  run  the  trains,  why  should  it  be  less 
reliable  for  the  elevators?  Should  the  trains  stop  by 
failure  of  the  line,  what  is  the  use  of  the  elevators, 
as  there  is  a  staircase  next  to  each  of  them?  To 
transmit  hydraulic  power  through  such  distances 
must  surely  be  more  expensive  and  less  reliable  than 
to  transmit  electric  power.  We  are  informed  that  cer- 
tain bad  stoppages,  which  are  made  so  much  of  by 
the  opposition  parties,  have  been  due  to  the  failure 
of  the  hydraulic  transmission,  which  fact  speaks  for 
itself.  The  hydraulic  plant  at  the  generating  station 
forms  no  small  part  of  the  total  plant.  As  to  its 
efficiency,  we  have  no  data,  but  it  certainly  cannot 
be  as  good  as  that  of  electricity  would  be.  It  would 
seem  that  the  matter  of  transmission  of  power 
ought  in  a  well-regulated  plant  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  electrical  rather  than  civil  engineers, 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  213 

To  an  American  used  to  smoothly  running  rail- 
road cars,  the  roadbed  appears  very  rough,  as 
noticed  from  the  violent  shaking  of  the  cars,  and 
this  must  affect  materially  the  consumption  of 
power  and  must  strain  the  framework  and  joints  of 
the  tunnel.  The  air  in  the  tunnel  is  cool  and  it  is 
entirely  free  from  the  sulphurous  odors  in  the 
underground  steam  roads,  but  it  has  a  decidedly 
musty  smell  like  that  of  a  damp,  deserted  cellar. 
The  cars  are  closed  and  there  are  no  windows ;  the 
strong  draught  on  the  outside  of  the  train  is  there- 
fore not  felt  much  in  the  cars.  For  long  rides,  how- 
ever, this  damp  smell  would  be  very  objectionable, 
which  could  probably  be  overcome  by  building  the 
tunnels  so  that  they  are  drier.  There  is  said  to  be 
only  a  small  quantity  of  water  leaking  into  the  tun- 
nels, which  is  pumped  out  daily  by  means  of  hydrau- 
lic injectors  placed  at  the  low  points  and  operated 
from  the  high-pressure  water  pipes  which  operate 
the  elevators.  The  underground  stations  are  lined 
with  white  glazed  brick,  and  appear  to  be  dry  and 
well  ventilated ;  they  are  lighted  by  gas,  strange  to 
say.  A  train  consists  of  one  locomotive  and  three 
cars  for  about  30  to  35  passengers  each,  or  about  100 
to  .a  train.  They  are  run  regularly  at  4£  minute 
intervals,  making  a  maximum  carrying  capacity  of 
1,330  passengers  per  hour.  There  are  three  trains 
running  each  way  at  one  time  about  one  mile  apart, 
and  one  at  each  end  station,  making  a  total  of 
eight  trains,  six  of  which  are  always  running.  The 
maximum  speed  is  said  to  be  25  miles  and  the  mean 
20.  The  average  speed,  including  stops,  is  said  to 
be  15  miles  per  hour.  The  total  length  of  the  line  is 


214     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

about  3i  miles.  The  cars  are  nearly  circular  in  sec- 
tion, have  two  rows  of  longitudinal  side  seats,  and 
entrances  at  the  ends;  the  entrances  are  closed  and 
locked  while  the  train  is  in  motion.  The  cars  com- 
municate, and  in  case  of  an  accident  completely 
stopping  the  train,  the  passengers  could  walk  out 
through  the  tunnel,  provided  the  doors,  which  are 
locked  and  bolted  from  tlie  outside,  can  be  forced 
open  by  the  imprisoned  passengers.  The  cars  are 
calculated  for  30  cubic  feet  of  capacity  per  passen- 
ger (20  cubic  feet  is  the  usual  number  required  on 
English  railroads).  The  cars  are  very  inadequately 
lighted  by  incandescent  lights,  five  in  series  on  the 
500-volt  mains  supplying  the  motor.  They  are  natu- 
rally very  unsteady,  which  is  very  annoying;  all 
grades  and  changes  of  speed  are  very  noticeable  in 
the  brightness  of  the  lights.  Oil  lamps  are  used  as 
reserves,  and  contrast  very  favorably  with  their 
poor  competitor. 

The  locomotive  has  two  axles,  each  with  two 
wheels.  Each  axle  carries  a  Gramme  ring  armature 
secured  on  it,  and  forms,  therefore,  a  gearless 
motor.  The  magnets,  one  set  for  each  armature,  are 
formed  of  two  large  massive  cores  and  a  yoke 
piece,  which  extends  from  the  shaft  upward,  in  an 
inclined  position  toward  the  middle  of  the  car ;  their 
lower  end  rests  on  bearings  on  the  axles  and  the 
upper  end  is  suspended  by  means  of  a  bolt ;  each 
axle,  therefore,  has  four  bearings,  two  for  the  car 
and  two  for  the  magnets.  Each  motor  is  said  to 
have  a  maximum  output  of  about  50  horse-power, 
making  100  horse-power  per  train ;  when  the  train 
is  fully  loaded  with  100  passengers,  this  would  make 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  215 

about  1  horse-power  per  passenger,  which  seems 
very  high;  it  is  likely,  however,  that  the  normal 
power  used  is  far  below  this  figure.  Each  motor  is 
said  to  be  capable  of  running  the  train  alone, 
though  slowly,  in  case  of  an  accident  to  the  other 
motor,  which  case  has,  it  is  said,  happened  more 
than  once.  The  reserve  motor  power  is,  therefore, 
50  per  cent,  of  the  maximum,  or  100  per  cent,  of  the 
normal  if  horse-power  can  be  taken  as  the  normal. 
Another  statement  made  to  the  writer  by  the 
attendant  at  the  generating  station  was  that  each 
motor  took  about  75  amperes,  which  at  450  volts  and 
80  per  cent,  efficiency  represents  36  horse-power  at 
the  wheels  per  motor,  or  72  per  car.  There  are  two 
sets  of  carbon  brushes  held  in  tangential  holders; 
the  whole  space  surrounding  the  brushes  and  com- 
mutator is  dust-proof  and  is  covered  with  a  thick 
plate  of  glass  forming  part  of  the  floor  of  the  loco- 
motive, and  thus  permitting  the  engineer  to  see  the 
action  of  the  brushes  all  the  time— a  commendable 
feature.  The  brakes  used  are  the  usual  air  brakes ; 
a  supply  of  compressed  air  at  80  pounds  pressure  is 
carried  in  iron  cylinders  sufficient  for  one  return 
trip.  They  claim  that  air  brakes  are  much  simpler 
than  electrical  brakes;  besides  this,  the  brakes 
might  have  to  be  used  quickly  and  unexpectedly  in 
case  the  current  was  interrupted,  which  itself  may 
be  sufficient  reason  for  not  using  electrical  brakes. 
Regarding  the  electrical  details  and  data  of  the 
locomotive  and  the  circuits,  no  information  could 
be  obtained,  although  application  was  made  in  turn 
to  the  officials,  the  engineers,  and  contractors 
(Mather  &  Platt).  But  as  far  as  could  be  seen,  there 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

was  nothing  unusual  of  any  importance.  Judging 
from  this  and  from  other  things  that  were  noticed, 
we  surmise  that  the  electrical  part  is  not  altogether 
satisfactory ;  in  another  similar  road  there  would 
probably  be  changes  r$ade,  as  indeed  is  quite 
natural,  because  the  present  road  is  to  a  certain 
extent,  at  least,  an  experimental  one,  and  it  would 
have  been  surprising  if  this  first  road  had  left  noth- 
ing to  be  improved  upon.  It  would  be  quite  inter- 
esting, however,  for  engineers  to  know  what  not  to 
do.  One  thing  we  noticed  was  quite  significant ;  in 
the  repair  shops  there  was  seen  a  large  scrap  heap 
of  copper  wire,  which,  from  its  shape  and  general 
appearance,  evidently  came  from  burnt-out  arma- 
ture coils.  An  attendant  at  the  repair  shop  remarked 
that  they  had  become  quite  experienced  armature 
winders,  a  remark  which  is  significant,  as  the  road 
had  been  running  only  seven  months.  The  burning 
out  of  these  armatures  may  have  been  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  were  originally  poorly  made,  and 
perhaps  the  rewinding  of  them  has  been  more  satis- 
factory; at  all  events,  the  insulation  of  the  wires 
of  a  gearless  armature  (that  is,  one  whose  shaft  is 
the  axle  of  the  wheels  of  the  car)  is  strained  very 
badly,  particularly  when  the  roadbed  is  very 
rough,  as  in  this  case.  No  springs  can  relieve  it  of 
the  direct  blows  which  the  armature  gets  when  the 
track  is  not  perfectly  even.  Besides  this,  the  strong 
current  required  at  starting  is  far  greater,  and  acts 
for  a  longer  time  than  in  a  geared  motor.  This  is 
readily  noticed  from  the  variable  brightness  of  the 
lamps  in  the  car,  which  in  this  case  can  almost  be 
said  to  be  a  crude  ampere  meter. 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  217 

The  locomotive  receives  its  current  from  a  single 
rail  laid  on  the  sleepers  near  one  of  the  tracks;  the 
tracks  themselves  formed  the  return  lead.  This  cur- 
rent rail  was  made  of  an  alloy  of  steel  (the  com- 
position is  said  to  he  a  secret)  which  is  at  the  same 
time  very  hard  and  a  good  conductor.  The  rail  has 
a  rectangular  section,  and  lies  almost  directly  on 
the  sleepers.  The  insulation  appears  to  be  quite  thin 
and  without  much  surface;  it  is  likely,  therefore, 
to  cause  trouble  by  leakage  in  such  a  damp  place. 
Why  such  a  good  opportunity  was  lost  to  place  it 
on  the  side  or  top  of  the  tunnel  is  not  apparent ;  this 
would  have  avoided  almost  completely  the  difficul- 
ties of  insulation.  The  contact  from  the  locomotive 
to  this  rail  was  made  by  a  very  crude  arrangement 
consisting  of  a  heavy  cast-iron  tongue  which  slid 
on  the  top  of  the  rail  and  was  held  by  a  loosely  fit- 
ting hinge;  there  was  no  provision  for  shunting  the 
poor  contact  at  this  loose  hinge,  though  it  might 
easily  have  been  done.  There  were  three  of  these 
tongues  on  each  locomotive;  being  curved,  they 
work  equally  well  for  both  directions  of  motion. 
The  contact  rail  was  in  sections,  supplied  by  inde- 
pendent leads,  presumably  the  same  as  usual. 

There  was  only  one  generating  station,  which  was 
located  at  the  Stock  well  end,  presumably  because 
ground  was  cheaper  there  than  in  the  middle  of  the 
road,  the  space  occupied  by  this  station  and  the 
adjoining  repair  shop  being  quite  large.  It  included 
an  inclined  plane  tunnel  leading  down  to  the  sub- 
way for  raising  the  cars  for  repairs ;  this  was  oper- 
ated by  a  cable  and  a  windlass.  The  main  part  of 
the  interior  of  this  station  was  shown  in  an  illustra- 


218     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

tion  too  large  to  be  reproduced  here,  which  will  be 
found  on  page  301  of  The  Electrical  World,  October 
24,  1891.  There  are  three  dynamos  of  500  volts  and 
about  500  amperes  each,  having  a  speed  of  500  revolu- 
itons.  There  is  an  engine  of  375  horse-power  for  each ; 
they  are  non-condensing,  and  govern  very  poorly. 
The  dynamos  are  compound  wound,  and  contain 
switches  on  their  yoke  pieces,  by  which  the  com- 
pound winding  on  each  limb  of  the  magnets  may  be 
cut  out.  There  is  no  equalizing  arrangement 
between  the  compound  windings.  Link  belts  and 
idle  pulleys  are  used.  The  belts  stretch  very  mate- 
rially when  carrying  a  load.  The  dynamos  are 
cooled  artificially  by  air  blasts  supplied  from  air 
pumps.  The  lubrication  is  by  means  of  a  milky 
white  mixture  of  castor  oil  and  water. 

The  switchboard  for  this  station  is  quite  simple. 
The  dynamos  are  connected  separately  to  it,  and 
can  be  variously  connected  to  the  different  sections 
of  the  road,  It  includes  an  ampere  meter  to  five 
amperes,  by  means  of  which  the  insulation  is  meas- 
ured every  morning  before  starting  with  a  500-volt 
current.  We  understand  that  a  few  amperes  leak- 
age is  not  considered  to  be  too  much.  At  2£  amperes 
the  insulation  resistance  would  be  but  200  ohms, 
which  surely  is  not  good.  The  cost  of  this  wasted 
energy  (.6  horse-power  per  ampere  of  leakage)  is 
probably  not  of  as  much  importance  as  the  electro- 
lytic corrosion  of  the  rails  and  destruction  of  the 
insulation  which  probably  accompany  it.  The 
switchboard,  furthermore,  contains  automatic  cut- 
outs, which  for  .abnormal  currents  switch  a  resist- 
ance into  the  circuit;  if  after  that  the  current  is 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  219 

still  too  great  it  opens  the  circuit  entirely;  if  the 
latter  does  not  take  place  the  engineer  in  charge 
cuts  out  the  resistance  again. 

Strange  to  say,  there  is  no  telephonic  communica- 
tion between  the  generating  station  and  the  way 
stations.  Instead  of  this  there  is  a  needle  telegraph 
system.  The  reason  given  for  this  otherwise  poor 
substitute  is  that  all  communications  must  be  made 
in  writing  and  filed  at  the  office,  which  naturally 
has  its  advantages. 

Inquiry  at  the  main  telegraph  office  of  London 
showed  that  there  were  no  serious  disturbances  of 
the  telegraph  lines  by  these  powerful  earth  return 
currents ;  but  they  are  said  to  materially  affect  the 
magnetic  observations  at  the  Greenwich  Observa- 
tory, which  is  about  five  miles  from  this  railroad. 
The  nearest  earth  plate  to  the  railway  is  2-J-  miles 
distant,  but  in  spite  of  this  the  currents  are  regu- 
larly and  continuously  visible  from  7  in  the  morn- 
ing to  11  o'clock  at  night.  The  differences  of  poten- 
tial registered  are,  of  course,  comparatively  slight, 
ranging,  however,  from  a  small  fraction  of  a  volt 
to  nearly  half  a  volt. 

The  interruptions  in  the  running  of  this  railroad 
are  said  to  have  been  due  chiefly  to  the  hydraulic 
pipes  and  to  short  circuiting  and  burning  out  of 
the  armatures.  But  these  interruptions  are  said  not 
to  have  been  of  a  serious  nature.  The  former  could 
readily  have  been  avoided  by  using  electric  instead  of 
hydraulic  transmission  of  power.  For  the  latter 
electricians  will  soon  find  a  remedy,  be  it  by  more 
careful  insulation  or  by  using  a  geared  motor  which 
is  supported  on  springs  to  dampen  the  concussions. 


220    'RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Much  is  made  by  opposition  parties  of  the  inter- 
ruptions which  have  occurred,  but  this  is  presuma- 
bly exaggerated.  In  the  first  11,000  trains  run,  there 
were  only  18  failures.  We  surmise,  however,  that 
there  was,  perhaps,  too  much  civil  engineering  and 
too  little  electric  engineering  in  some  features  of 
the  road,  and  we  are  led  to  believe  from  this  that 
the  latter  engineers,  who  were  mere  contractors 
under  the  former,  were  not  altogether  responsible 
for  some  of  the  unsatisfactory  features. 

The  road  was  opened  in  December,  1890.  The 
uniform  fare  is  2d.  (4  cts.).  During  the  first  27  work- 
ing days  414,000  passengers  were  carried.  Up  to 
February  25th,  the  earnings  were  £7,500;  900,000 
passengers  were  carried,  60,000  train  miles  were 
run.  The  receipts  per  train  mile  were  2-Js.  (60  cts.,  or 
20  cts.  per  car  mile  for  trains  of  three  cars).  Reports 
in  April  state  that  there  were  about  100,000  passen- 
gers per  week.  During  the  first  six  months  2,412,343 
passengers  were  carried;  141,408  train  miles  were 
run;  gross  earnings,  £19,688;  receipts  per  train  mile 
were  therefore  2s.  9d.  (66.8  cts.,  or  22.4  cts.  per  car 
mile);  total  expenses,  £15,520,  or  78.8  per  cent,  of 
gross  earnings;  net  earnings,  £4,168,  which  was 
only  sufficient  to  pay  an  ordinary  interest  on  the 
bonds.  The  running  expenses  per  car  mile  were  lid. 
(22  cts.),  from  the  above  figures  it  was  26. 4d.  (or  52.7 
cts.)  per  train  mile,  (or  17.6  cts.  per  car  mile  for 
trains  of  three  cars) ;  average  number  of  passengers 
per  train  mile,  17,  that  of  the  Metropolitan  Steam 
Road  being  43.  Average  receipts  from  passengers, 
2s.  9d.  per  train  mile.  For  October  the  average 
weekly  receipts  were  said  to  be  £750;  operating 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  221 

expenses  were  3.08  cts.  per  passenger.  The  fare  dur- 
ing the  busy  hours  is  to  be  increased  from  2d.  to  3d. 

Central  London  Underground  Railroad  (Pro- 
jected).—The  best  proof  that  the  present  City  and 
South  London  road  described  above  is  a  success  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  this  second  similar  road  is 
projected  by  the  same  parties.  This  new  road  is  to 
extend  between  Shepherd's  Bush  and  the  Royal 
Exchange,  a  distance  of  about  six  miles,  under 
Cheapside,  Holborn  Viaduct,  Oxford  street,  etc., 
which  is  the  main  artery  running  east  and  west 
through  the  heart  of  London.  There  is  said  to  be 
more  traffic  there  than  in  any  other  thoroughfare 
in  the  world,  Broadway  in  New  York  included.  This 
route  forms  a  sort  of  diameter  of  the  circular  route 
made  by  the  present  underground  steam  road.  As 
a  line  of  travel  it  is  very  similar  to  Broadway  in 
New  York. 

The  tunnel  will  be  chiefly  under  streets,  at  an 
average  depth  of  00  to  70  feet,  at  times  reaching  80 
to  90  feet,  passing  under  the  present  underground 
steam  road  in  two  places.  The  steepest  grade  will 
be  one  per  cent.  The  tunnel  will  be  11  feet  6  inches 
in  diameter,  which  is  larger  than  that  of  the  City 
and  South  London  road  by  18  inches.  This  will 
enable  the  cars  to  be  larger  and  more  comfortable. 
The  cars  are  cylindrical,  fitting  the  tunnel  quite 
closely.  A  train  will  have  four  cars,  carrying  350 
passengers  (seated),  and  will  run  on  three  minute 
time,  instead  of  100  passengers  on  four  and  a  half 
minute  time,  as  on  the  other  road.  The  present  road 
does  not  pass  through  a  district  where  there  is  as 
much  traffic  as  in  the  line  of  this  new  road, 


RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

The  average  speed  will  be  15  miles  an  hour,  the 
total  rolling  load  120  tons.  There  will  be  13  stations. 
The  generating  station  will  have  from  two  to  three 
thousand  horse-power.  The  proposed  capital  is 
£3,500,000.  The  cost  is  estimated  at  about  £600,000 
per  mile,  and  the  working  expenses  9d.  per  train 
mile. 

It  is  very  significant  and  instructive  to  notice 
what  changes  in  the  construction  are  to  be  made  in 
this  new  road  as  compared  with  the  present  one, 
the  promoters  being  the  same.  Any  one  interested 
in  such  roads  will  do  well  to  compare  the  two  roads 
in  detail,  when  such  detailed  descriptions  are  pub- 
lished. At  present  such  information  is  scarce.  It 
appears  that  the  general  features  will  remain  about 
the  same.  The  feature  of  having  two  independent 
motors  on  the  locomotive,  one  for  each  pair  of  driv- 
ing wheels,  is  said  to  be  very  satisfactory ;  one  of 
these  motors  is  said  to  be  able  to  run  the  train 
alone  in  case  the  other  is  disabled.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal changes  is  that  there  will  be  a  separate  system 
of  mains  for  the  lighting  of  the  stations  and  tun- 
nels, and  probably  the  cars  also,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
very  annoying  and  unceasing  changing  of  the 
brightness  of  the  lights.  The  brakes  will  be  opera- 
ted by  compressed  air  carried  on  the  locomotive, 
and  supplied  at  the  end  stations  as  at  present ;  elec- 
tric brakes  are  claimed  to  be  so  much  more  compli- 
cated than  air  brakes.  The  strange  feature  in  the 
present  road  of  running  the  large  elevators  at  the 
stations  by  hydraulic  pressure,  transmitted  through 
miles  of  pipe  from  the  generating  station,  will  prob- 
ably be  changed  in  the  new  road,  in  which  electrical 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  223 

elevators  will  probably  be  used.  To  an  American,  so 
accustomed  to  electrical  elevators,  it  seems  strange 
that  this  was  not  done  on  the  present  road  instead 
of  making  the  system  more  complicated  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  second  system  of  transmitting  power 
which,  it  would  appear,  is  more  complicated  and 
more  liable  to  failure  than  the  electrical  trans- 
mission for  which  the  circuits  exist.  If  the  latter  is 
relied  upon  for  propelling  the  trains,  why  should  it 
be  less  reliable  for  running  the  elevators?  Hydrau- 
lic transmission  surely  cannot  be  cheaper. 

Paris  Underground  Railway  (Projected.) — It  is 
reported  that  the  municipal  authorities  of  the  city 
of  Paris  have  just  decided  on  building  an  under- 
ground electric  railroad  from  one  side  of  the  city  to 
the  other,  as  a  sort  of  a  long  diameter  to  the  nearly 
circular  city,  passing  near  most  of  the  prominent 
parts  of  the  city.  The  system  adopted  is  that  pre- 
sented by  M.  J.  B.  Berlier.  The  concession  includes 
an  underground  tunnel  nearly  following  the  course 
of  the  Seine,  and  traversing  Paris  at  its  greatest 
breadth.  There  are  to  be  six  stations,  and  a  genera- 
ting depot  at  the  end  of  the  line.  The  construction 
of  the  tunnel  will  be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  City 
and  South  London  underground  electric  railroad. 

The  transversal  sleepers  of  injected  wood  are 
placed  a  metre  apart ;  on  these  run  two  parallel 
ways  formed  of  rails  30  kilos  to  the  running  metre. 
In  the  middle  of  each  line  is  placed  a  central  rail 
insulated  by  india-rubber  plates  from  the  sleepers 
to  which  it  is  fastened.  The  motor  carriage  carries 
under  its  framework  two  gearless  motors  on  the 
same  circuit.  The  motors  are  each  25  horse-power, 


224      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

and  will  be  regulated  for  proportionate  speeds  and 
for  stoppages  by  a  rheostat  regulator,  while  the 
reversing  of  the  machinery  will  be  effected  by  a 
special  commutator.  During  the  journey,  all  the 
doors  will  be  closed  by  an  electric  bolt  under  the 
charge  of  the  engine  driver ;  on  arriving  at  a  station 
they  will  be  released  and  will  open  automatically. 
The  lighting  question  is  to  be  solved  by  a  special 
service  established  at  the  works  at  the  end  of  the 
line,  and  will  include  arc  lighting  for  the  stations 
and  incandescent  lights  for  the  carriages,  signals, 
and  for  the  general  service  of  the  tunnel  through- 
out its  length.  The  electricity  generating  machinery 
will  be  duplicated,  so  as  to  provide  against  break- 
downs. 

A  Four  Track  Tunnel  Road  Proposed  for  New 
York  City. — In  the  supplement  to  The  Electrical 
World,  of  February  21,  1891,  there  is  published  an  in- 
terview of  Mr.  F.  J.  Sprague,  on  "  The  Solution  of  the 
Problem  of  "Rapid  Transit  for  New  York  City,"  of 
which  we  give  below  an  abstract  of  the  plan  which 
he  proposes. 

The  first  portion  of  the  interview  is  a  considera- 
tion of  the  various  systems  proposed  for  New  York, 
which  we  will  omit  here.  He  states  that  the  total 
annual  passenger  traffic,  that  is,  the  total  number 
of  passengers  carried  in  that  city,  has  increased  at 
the  rate  of  140  per  cent,  in  each  period  of  ten  years, 
since  1866,  and  is  now  something  over  325,000,000. 
At  the  same  rate  of  increase,  it  would  amount  in 
1890  to  over  500,000,000,  and  in  1900  to  1,225,000,000. 

He  states  that  a  road  should  be  built  not  only  in 
the  most  substantial  manner,  but  with  well-hedged 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  225 

privileges  and  franchises,  which  will  protect  the  city 
in  its  undoubted  rights,  and  offer  the  certainty  of 
fair  and  equitable  returns  to  an  investor,  large  or 
small,  so  that  its  bonds  or  stocks  should  be  as  safe 
and  as  much  sought  after  as  a  government  bond. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  description  of 
the  plan  which  he  proposes:  "An  independent  and 
way  express  service,  each  having  double  tracks,  but 
having  independent  paths,  run  in  independent  cir- 
cular iron  tunnels,  and  forming  a  loop  around  the 
city  from  tli  e  Battery  to  Jerome  Park ;  the  express 
and  way  tracks  to  intersect  or  join  at  different 
levels  at  common  stations,  and  to  be  operated  by 
electricity ;  way  tracks  to  have  stations  every  third 
of  a  mile,  express  every  mile  and  a  half;  and  a  loop 
to  be  provided  just  south  of  the  Harlem  River. 
Independence  of  express  and  way  service  is  essen- 
tial. The  operation  of  express  and  way  trains  on  a 
two-track  railroad,  to  meet  the  condition  of  service 
of  New  York  City,  should  not  be  thought  of.  It  is 
impossible  to  satisfactorily  so  operate  to-day;  it  will 
be  vastly  more  so  twenty  years  from  now. 

"To  illustrate  this  point,  we  have  only  to  consider 
the  work  done  on  the  Third  avenue  elevated  road, 
such  as  it  was  a  short  time  ago,  and  it  cannot  be 
less  to-day.  I  have  made  a  special  study  of  it  for  six 
years  past. 

"This  road  is  eight  and  a  half  miles  long.  Grades 
vary  from  8  to  105  feet  to  the  mile.  The  level 
stretches  amount  to  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
distance,  and  this  includes  the  stations.  On  the  17 
miles  of  single  track  there  are  52  stations,  In  the 
busy  hours  there  are  no  less  than  63  four  and  five- 


226      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

car  trains  on  the  track.  These  trains,  weighing 
from  80  to  95  tons,  make  the  half  trip  in  42  minutes, 
including  stopping  at  26  stations,  or  at  the  rate  of 
about  10  traffic  miles  per  hour.  The  work  of  the 
engines  may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  viz.,  over- 
coming the  train's  inertia,  lifting  the  train  on  the 
grades,  and  traction,  and  the  maximum  is  at  least 
seven  times  that  necessary  for  traction  at  mean 
speed  on  a  level.  Three  times  in  every  mile  this 
weight  of  80  to  95  tons  must  be  started  from  a  dead 
rest,  raised  to  a  speed  of  20  or  more  miles  an  hour 
and  brought  to  rest  in  about  80  seconds.  The  engines 
are  run  with  130  pounds  boiler  pressure  and  have  a 
capacity  of  185  horse-power.  Fifty-nine  per  cent,  of 
the  power  on  a  round  trip  is  used  in  accelerating  speed 
24:  per  cent,  in  lifting  and  17  per  cent,  in  traction, 
and  the  average  power  developed  per  minute  per 
round  trip,  including  stoppages,  is  70.3  horse-power. 
"  These  are  instructive  figures,  which  alone  should 
show  the  fallacy  of  a  two-track  system.  They  show 
that  it  is  perfectly  certain  that  on  the  present  sys- 
tem a  greater  traffic  speed  than  10  miles  an  hour 
cannot  be  maintained,  while  it  is  equally  true,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  we  cannot  consider  any  less 
frequent  stations  for  way  service  than  three  to  a 
mile,  yet  note  what  tremendous  duty  is  required  of 
engines  to  make  even  this  moderate  speed  under 
conditions  of  frequent  stops.  I  am  well  within 
bounds  when  I  say  that  a  motor  which  can  do  the 
service  of  a  way  train  at  short  intervals  can  equally 
well  do  the  work  of  a  heavy  express  train  at  long 
intervals.  If  an  individual  tunnel  construction  be 
used,  there  would  not  only  be  no  room  for  a  train  to 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  227 

fall,  but  a  broken  axle  or  a  derailed  train  would 
not,  of  itself,  be  apt  to  prove  serious.  The  tunnels 
would  be  lighted  constantly  and  uniformly;  the 
rails  would  be  always  in  perfect  condition  for 
adhesion,  and  the  temperature  of  the  tunnel  would 
be  almost  constant.  Heating  of  the  trains  or  sta- 
tions would  be  unnecessary.  Ventilation  could  be 
made  perfect. 

"Cars  for  such  underground  systems  would 
require  no  windows,  landscape  views  not  being 
essential  to  rapid  transit  in  a  city,  and  hence,  with 
the  same  weight,  can  be  more  strongly  constructed. 
Absolute  freedom  from  sharp  curves  and  the 
arranging  of  grades  so  that,  instead  of  being  a 
detriment,  they  can  be  of  positive  aid  in  train  ser- 
vice, are  not  among  the  least  advantages  of  an 
underground  system.  Where  curves  occur,  they  can 
be  either  on  a  dead  level  or  the  grades  can  be  so 
managed  that  they  will  be  of  service. 

"  Having  determined  upon  a  tunnel  construction, 
independence  of  express  and  way  tracks  is  not  all 
that  is  essential.  These  might  be  obtained  if  all  four 
tracks  were  in  a  common  tunnel,  but  when  we  real- 
ize some  of  the  other  conditions  which  must  be  met, 
and  that  such  a  four-track  system  could  not  be 
placed  in  a  common  tunnel  not  less  than  50  feet  in 
width  and  20  feet  in  height,  objections  to  such  con- 
struction are  pronounced.  It  is  manifest,  also,  that 
if  the  size  of  a  tunnel  for  four  tracks  has  objections 
structurally  and  otherwise,  one  for  two  tracks  must 
have  similar  objections,  although  in  a  less  degree. 
Hence  my  plan  is  a  system  of  independent  express 
and  way  routes,  each  having  two  tracks,  each  car- 


228      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

ried  in  independent  tunnels,  and  having  their  paths 
intersect  at  certain  common  important  points,  say 
on  an  average  every  mile  and  a  half.  I  would  have 
not  only  the  routes  of  these  services  independent  of 
each  other,  save  at  their  common  meeting  points, 
but  I  would  have  them,  at  all  other  points,  inde- 
pendent also  in  the  matter  of  grade,  and  further- 
more, I  should  have  the  tunnels  of  each  system, 
while  normally  running  side  by  side,  sufficiently 
independent  to  permit  of  such  variation  of  route  for 
each  track  as  the  meeting  of  obstructions  in  the  con- 
struction should  require ;  or  briefly,  I  would  have 
four  independent  tunnels,  all  four  meeting  at  a 
common  station  once  every  mile  and  a  half,  and  the 
way  tunnels  meeting  at  common  stations  every 
third  of  a  mile. 

"The  advantages  of  such  a  method  are:  1.  A 
much  stronger  construction  is  possible  with  the 
same  weight  of  materials,  because  a  tunnel  of 
12  or  13  feet  in  diameter  can  be  built  with  strength 
to  support  a  given  outside  pressure  with  much  less 
than  one-quarter  of  the  weight  of  material  required 
to  build  a  tunnel  of  four  times  the  area,  and  a 
tunnel  to  accommodate  four  tracks  would  have  more 
than  four  times  the  area  of  a  tunnel  to  accommo- 
date one. 

"  2.  At  any  given  depth  there  will  be  far  less  inter- 
ference with  and  danger  to  the  foundations  of  a 
building  with  a  small  tunnel  than  with  a  large  one ; 
in  fact,  a  tunnel  of  the  smaller  size  could  be  run 
with  perfect  safety  almost  through  and  certainly 
under  or  alongside  the  very  foundations  of  the 
heaviest  buildings. 


(TUNNEL)  SYSTEM.  229 

"  3.  The  nearer  the  surtace  a  system  is  run  the 
greater  the  variety  of  ohs Auctions  which  will  be 
met,  which  with  a  large  tunnel  would  require  a 
very  costly  change  of  gas,  sewet ,  and  other  pipes. 
A  13-foot  tunnel,  independently  run,  could  easily 
deviate  up  or  down,  to  the  right  01  left,  in  fact, 
weave  its  way  through  and  around  obstructions, 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  with  a  large 
tunnel.  This  is  one  of  the  very  greatest  advantages 
to  be  obtained  with  the  independent  tunnel  con- 
struction. 

"The  express  route,  if  a  difference  of  level  exists 
between  express  and  way  tracks,  should  be  the 
lower  one,  and  being  lower,  it  can  run  in  more  direct 
lines  with  less  necessity  of  divergence  on  account  of 
obstructions.  While  express  tracks  should  thus  run 
in  the  most  direct  line  possible  between  main  sta- 
tions, the  way  tracks  could  take  more  or  less 
divergent  paths  as  determined  by  the  best  positions 
for  the  way  stations.  On  this  account  the  express 
route  will  be  somewhat  shorter  than  the  way,  which 
would  be  an  important  help  to  a  quick  schedule 
time. 

"  If,  as  should  be  the  case,  the  tunnel  is  built  of 
iron  and  of  circular  cross  section,  not  only  will  the 
construction  be  the  strongest  which  can  be  built  for 
any  given  clearance,  but  with  the  minimum  of 
excavations.  Its  safety  would  consist  in  its  arch 
presenting  the  maximum  of  resistance  to  vertical 
and  side  pressure.  The  thickness  can  be  varied  to 
suit  the  condition  of  strain  to  be  met.  The  entire 
New  York  City  line  could  be  ready  for  active  opera- 
tion within  18  months.  The  cost  of  such  a  construe- 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

tion  would  be  about  $500,000  per  mile  of  single  tun- 
nel. This  facility  of  access  to  trains  can  only  be  had 
where  there  is  a  common  station,  which  station 
should  be  between  the  up  and  down  tracks,  and 
should  be  roomy,  well-lighted,  and  easy  to  reach 
from  the  street.  Sole^  dependence  should  not  be 
placed  on  elevator  service,  although  such  should  be 
provided  whenever  their  use  could  be  of  advantage. 
At  way  stations  a  common  platform  between  two 
tracks  is  easily  provided,  because  the  two  tracks 
are  on  the  same  level,  and  there  is  nothing  to  pro- 
vide for  special  changes.  At  the  common  way  and 
express  stations,  however,  a  somewhat  more  ela.bo- 
rate  station  system  should  be  adopted ;  the  depth  of 
the  way  tracks  below  the  surface  would  be  the  same 
here  as  at  regular  way  stations,  but  the  express 
tracks  would  be  about  13  feet  lower,  and  preferably 
directly  under  the  way  tracks;  thus  the  four  trains 
would  occupy  the  four  corners  of  a  parallelogram. 
Elevators,  when  used,  should  be  in  the  centre  of  the 
ntation,  open  on  both  sides,  and  operated  primarily 
by  electricity.  The  entrance  to  stations  should  take 
no  street  room,  and  hence  form  no  obstruction.  The 
station  and  offices  should  occupy  the  first  floor  and 
deep  basement  of  a  building  especially  constructed 
for  the  purpose,  all  the  upper  portion  of  which 
could  be  utilized  for  ordinary  business  purposes, 
and  two  or  more  elevators  could  run  the  full  height 
of  the  building  from  the  station  platform. 

"There  should  be  no  grade  crossings.  While  the 
importance  of  this  rule  has  met  little  recognition  in 
this  country,  and  does  not  mark  any  widespread 
p?actice  here,  yet  it  is  the  standard  practice  of  the 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  231 

main  trunk  lines  in  London.  Its  merits  need  little 
comment,  because  whatever  other  conditions  may 
exist,  high  speed,  safety,  and  regularity  of  service 
can  only  be  had  in  a  fully  satisfactory  manner 
where  there  is  a  clear  right  of  way. 

"There  should  be  no  connection  between  an 
express  and  a  way  track,  except  at  the  dispatching 
and'  siding  stations,  where  everything  could  be 
under  the  most  rigid  personal  supervision,  and 
where  the  necessary  complication  of  tracks  can  be 
properly  supervised.  Switches,  even  between  the 
way  tracks  and  between  the  express  tracks,  should 
be  used  only  in  case  of  emergency,  and  the  main 
line  of  rails  should  be  absolutely  unbroken.  The 
roadbed  should  be  of  the  most  rigid  and  even  char- 
acter, and  the  weight  of  rail  commensurate  with 
the  duty. 

"Train  intervals  and  passenger  requirements 
should  determine  the  length  of  trains,  instead  of 
length  of  trains  determining  train  intervals.  It  is 
not  express  service  to  have  to  wait  10  or  15  minutes 
for  an  express  train  after  leaving  a  way  one.  The 
most  frequent  interval  that  can  be  safely  run  is 
that  which  should  be  adopted,  of  course,  with  rea- 
sonable regard  to  the  amount  of  passenger  traffic, 
which,  however,  will  be  better  accommodated  at 
certain  portions  of  the  day  by  smaller  units  and 
more  frequent  trains.  The  number  of  cars  in  a  unit 
determines  the  number  of  passengers  that  can  be 
carried  with  a  given  safe  interval  between  trains, 
because  the  time  of  discharging  and  taking  on  pas- 
sengers will  be  almost  constant  with  a  given  traffic 
per  car,  whether  the  trains  be  long  or  short.  So 


232      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

long  only  as  there  is  a  safe  interval  between  a  train 
standing  at  the  station  and  one  approaching  it,  the 
train  unit  is  not  too  small  for  passenger  require- 
ments, providing  the  following  train  is  not  delayed. 
When,  however,  the  following  train  has  to  wait 
on  approaching  a  station  for  another  train  to  clear 
the  way,  the  train  unit  is  too  small.  The  use  of  way 
and  express  tracks  would  relieve  that  congestion  of 
traffic  which  characterizes  the  two  track  system  of 
the  elevated  railroads,  and  which  on  any  two-track 
road  cannot  be  avoided  in  New  York. 

"Electricity  will  unquestionably  be  the  motive 
power.  The  hum  of  the  motor  is  the  song  of  eman- 
cipation. As  an  independent  way  and  express  sys- 
tem of  tracks  should  be  an  essential  of  a  rapid  tran- 
sit system,  so  also  should  the  use  of  electricity  as  a 
motive  power  be  a  sine  qua  non,  and  accepting  the 
statement  that  this  agent  is  capable  of  satisfying  in 
the  highest  degree  the  most  exacting  demands  of 
service,  the  system  should  be  planned  with  a  special 
reference  to  its  use.  One  great  trouble  with  most  of 
the  rapid  transit  plans  which  have  been  proposed  is 
that  they  have  been  designed  from  a  steam 
engineer's  point  of  view.  Steam  practice  has  deter- 
mined not  only  the  form  of  roadbed  or  tunnel,  but 
also  the  laying  of  tracks,  the  construction  of  the 
cars,  the  ventilation  and  lighting  of  the  trains  and 
the  roadway,  the  length  of  trains,  the  system  of 
switching  and  dispatching — in  short,  there  has  been 
scant  recognition  of  the  fact  that  electricity  has, 
within  the  past  three  years,  jumped  to  the  front 
with  tremendous  strides,  and  given  practical  and 
most  conclusive  proof  of  its  pre-eminent  fitness  for 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  233 

at  least  all  transit  of  this  character.  Many  of  these 
systems  were  planned  before  electricity  was  in  its 
swaddling  clothes,  and  even  recently  when  elec- 
tricity has  been  spoken  of  by  the  steam  engineer,  it 
has  been  with  a  somewhat  indistinct  idea  that  elec- 
trical engineers  would  fit  their  conceptions  to  steam 
demands.  But  this  will  not  be  done.  The  best 
informed  of  them  know  that  the  time  has  come 
when  it  will  accept  no  secondary  place;  that 
there  is  nothing  which  steam  can  do  in  the 
matter  of  handling  trains,  certainly  within  the 
limits  here  considered,  which  electricity  cannot 
perform  in  a  more  satisfactory  and  a  more  perfect 
manner. 

"The  method  of  supplying  the  current  will 
undoubtedly  be  by  the  overhead  single  conductor 
underneath  contact  system,  with  rail  and  tunnel 
return,  despite  the  criticisms  of  what  is  properly 
known  as  the  overhead  wire  system,  which  is  the 
necessary  street  development,  with  many  limita- 
tions, of  the  underneath  plan.  With  a  tunnel  road 
the  overhead  wire  would  be  replaced  by  a  rigid  rail, 
supported  at  short  intervals  at  a  fixed  distance 
from  the  roadbed,  and  following  accurately  the 
centre  line  of  all  track  and  switch  paths. 

"We  would  then  have  a  system  in  which  the 
electrical  part,  or  rather  the  overhead  conductor, 
because  all  parts  would  be  electrical,  would  be  just 
as  rigid  and  permanent  as  the  roadbed,  and  we 
should  have  perfection  of  insulation,  freedom  from 
personal  liability,  continuous  contact  with  a  single 
device,  and  speed  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of 
the  motors.  With  such  an  overhead  conductor,  a 


234     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

speed  of  120  miles  per  hour  has  already  been  suc- 
cessfully obtained  on  experimental  work. 

"The  so-called  difficulties  of  the  overhead  system 
would  then  absolutely  disappear.  A  centre  rail  sys- 
tem, with  the  conductor  hear  the  level  of  the  tracks, 
must  necessarily  be  broken  at  all  switches,  thus 
requiring  double  contacts  on  the  motor  car,  and 
cannot  offer  the  same  advantages  of  insulation  and 
freedom  from  personal  contact.  The  overhead  sys- 
tem would  have  been  used  upon  the  London  road  if 
there  had  been  room  enough.  Of  this  I  was  assured 
by  the  consulting  engineer  of  the  road.  The  current 
could  be  supplied  to  this  entire  system  for  not  only 
the  motive  power,  but  for  lighting,  and, 'if  neces- 
sary, for  ventilation.  The  station  would  be  operated 
by  triple-expansion  condensing  engines  in  three 
units,  each  driving  a  pair  of  multipolar  slow  speed 
dynamos  directly  coupled,  the  units  being  large 
enough  so  that  two  engines  could  handle  the  nor- 
mal maximum  demand  upon  the  station.  The 
economy  of  coal  consumption  under  these  con- 
ditions is  too  well  known  to  need  comment. 

"While  for  the  purposes  of  traction,  getting 
quickly  under  way,  and  for  marvelous  braking 
power  in  case  of  emergency,  a  motor  on  every  truck 
with  control  from  a  pilot  car  is  possible,  and  would 
be  a  great  service,  I  think  it  likely  that  an  inde- 
pendent motor  car  will  be  found  to  be  more  advan- 
tageous, because  of  the  care  which  the  machines 
can  have,  the  lack  of  necessity  to  subordinate  the 
motor  to  abnormal  conditions,  and  because,  with 
the  grades  which  an  underground  system  will  pre- 
sent, and  with  the  constant  co-efficient  of  traction 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  235 

which  the  rails  would  have,  a  motor  car  could  be 
relied  upon  to  efficiently  handle  six  times  its  own 
weight  of  passenger  cars  behind  it.  The  multi- 
plicity of  parts  should  ordinarily  be  avoided,  and 
the  construction  of  the  cars  which  the  tunnel  can 
best  have  might  make  the  use  of  a  motor  under 
each  and  every  car  inconvenient. 

"  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  the  question  of  motor 
construction.  Gearing  will  be  done  away  with, 
slow-speed  motors  used,  directly  coupled,  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  they  will  be  quite  as  reliable  as  the 
best  steam  locomotive. 

*'  For  use  on  an  electric  train,  not  only  is  every 
system  of  braking  in  common  use,  the  vacuum,  the 
air — whether  the  continuous  pressure  or  the  stored 
resevoir  system — available,  but  more  than  this,  and 
acting  with  a  certainty,  rapidity,  and  delicacy 
almost  inconceivable,  is  the  dynamo  power  of  the 
motor  system.  In  a  perfect  system  of  transmission, 
every  car  running  on  a  down  grade,  while  not 
accelerating  its  speed,  and  every  car  coming  to  a 
stop  ought  to  be  of  service  in  helping  to  propel  other 
cars. 

"  As  already  pointed  out,  the  work  done  on  a  train 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes :  First,  the  work 
of  accelerating  the  speed,  that  is,  of  getting  from 
zero  up  to  its  maximum  speed,  the  process  of 
imparting  to  the  train  a  certain  amount  of  stored 
up  energy  which,  when  trains  are  stopped  by  the 
use  of  the  brake  in  the  ordinary  manner,  is  nearly 
all  wasted.  Second,  in  lifting  the  train  from  one 
level  to  another,  that  is  grade  work ;  this  is  par- 
tially recovered  on  down  grades,  more  so  on  express 


236     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

service  than  it  can  be  on  way  service,  on  account  of 
the  less  frequent  stops.  Third,  traction,  the  work 
expended  in  hauling  a  train  on  a  level. 

"In  a  cable  system  running  on  a  straight  line, 
cars  which  are  running  on  down  grades  do  help  to 
pull  others  on  level  or  up  grades,  but  the  amount 
of  power  used  to  propel  the  cable  itself  is  so  largely 
in  excess  of  that  used  for  propelling  the  car  that 
this  is  not  of  much  importance,  and  on  roads  with 
curves  it  becomes  even  less  so.  Slowing  down  cars 
on  cable  roads  is  of  no  service  in  restoring  energy 
to  the  system.  In  an  electric  car,  however,  when 
operated  under  proper  conditions,  all  this  is 
changed.  There  is  intimate  relationship  between 
every  foot  of  the  system,  and  a  train  slowing  down 
or  a  train  running  on  a  down  grade  can  give  back 
a  large  proportion  of  the  energy  to  the  system  for 
use  on  other  trains.  The  transmission  of  the  energy 
by  the  current  proceeds  with  calm  indifference  to 
grades  and  curves,  or  the  condition  of  the  ther- 
mometer or  the  barometer,  and  serenely  annihilates 
time  and  space.  Be  it  hot  or  cold,  wet  or  dry,  the 
interchange  of  energy  is  perfect. 

"This  method  of  braking  is  of  great  commercial 
importance,  since  by  it  there  is  a  saving  of  about 
40  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  power  at  the  central 
stations,  and  it  effects  a  similar  saving  in  the  size 
and  cost  of  stations  and  conductors.  Instead  of  the 
current  being  all  supplied  from  the  main  genera- 
ting stations,  it  would  be  supplied  from  nearly  as 
many  moving  stations  along  the  line  as  there  would 
be  trains  slowing  down  or  running  on  a  down  grade. 
In  fact,  the  loss  of  the  two  conversions  and  one 


UNDERGROUND    (TUNNEL)    SYSTEM.  237 

transmission  would  be  fully  counterbalanced,  and 
the  original  horse-power  at  the  central  station 
would  be  no  more  than  the  aggregate  net  horse- 
power developed  on  the  entire  line. 

u  Another  method  of  using  the  motors  for  braking 
purposes  is  to  break  the  connection  with  the  line 
and  reverse  the  machine  through  a  local  circuit  on 
the  train,  varying  either  the  local  circuit  or  the  cir- 
cuits of  the  machine.  While  in  this  position  of 
braking,  if  the  local  circuit  is  opened  and  the  line 
connection  made,  the  machine  would  be  instantly 
reversed. 

"  Elaborate  experiments  have  been  made  in  hand- 
ling a  car  without  shoe-brakes  by  these  methods 
of  braking.  When  desired,  the  braking  could  be 
made  so  sudden  as  to  cause  the  wheels  to  have  a 
continuous  skidding  rotation,  not  such  a  skidding 
as  is  caused  when  an  air  brake  is  put  on  too  sharply, 
but  a  rotating  slip  which  is  just  enough  to  relieve 
the  motor  when  the  strain  on  it  reaches  the  point 
determined  by  the  co-efficient  of  adhesion  on  the 
rails.  This  is  the  ideal  method  of  braking,  because 
fixed  skidding  and  flat  wheels  are  an  impossibility, 
and  the  wheels  will  turn  until  the  train  comes  to  a 
dead  stop,  although  where  the  braking  power  is  put 
on  too  suddenly  and  exceeds  the  grip  of  the  wheels, 
they  will  relieve  themselves  by  slipping  just  enough 
to  keep  the  braking  at  the  maximum  limit.  A  train  so 
governed  can  be  made  to  creep  down  the  maximum 
grade  of  a  road  at  a  snail's  pace,  and  in  an  emer- 
gency such  a  car,  running  21  miles  an  hour  on  a 
down  grade,  has  been  stopped  and  reversed  within 
90  feet. 


238      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

"When  an  electric  motor  is  reversed,  its  action  is 
cumulative,  and  thus  much  increases  the  effort  to 
stop  itself ;  and  the  higher  the  velocity  at  which  it 
is  traveling  the  greater  this  effort.  In  fact,  it  would 
be  practically  impossible  with  a  properly  con- 
structed railroad  motor  to  prevent  its  reversing 
when  the  switch  is  thrown  over  far  enough." 

Reno    Underground    Road     (Proposed). — Among 


I 

II 


FIG.  26.— METHOD  OF  CONSTRUCTING  THE  RENO  TUNNEL. 

the  proposals  made  for  an  underground  road  for 
New  York  City  was  the  following,  proposed  by  Mr. 
Reno,  which  contains  some  interesting  suggestions. 
The  proposed  method  of  construction  is  shown  in 
Figs.  26  to  30.  One  side  wall  at  a  time  is  constructed. 
A  trench  outside  of  the  car  tracks  is  excavated  3 
feet  in  width  and  38  feet  deep,  and  the  ground  thor- 
oughly supported  and  braced  by  a  plank  lining. 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM. 


239 


The  tunnel  wall  is  then  made  by  filling  in  this  space 
with  the  best  concrete.  When  the  wall  is  built  up 
to  within  11  feet  of  the  surface,  the  plank  lining  is 
removed,  the  trench  filled  in,  and  the  strip  of  street 
paving  relaid.  The  other  side  wall  of  the  tunnel  is 
similarly  constructed.  The  excavation  of  the  ground 
between  the  side  walls  is  then  effected  without  dis- 
turbing the  street  surface,  pipes  or  subways,  by  a 


FIG.  27. 

steel  "cutting  edge,"  as  seen  in  Fig.  27,  which  rests 
at  each  end  upon  the  completed  side  walls  and  is 
forced  ahead  by  hydraulic  pressure,  while  the  chan- 
nel steel  roof  sections  are  built  in  behind  it  and  the 
construction  of  the  internal  steel  structure  imme- 
diately follows.  The  ground  adjacent  to  the  steel 
roof  is  solidified  by  liquid  cement  forced  in  under 
pressure.  This  in  conjunction  with  the  asphalt  coated 


240      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

steel  roof  is  to  insure  a  perfectly  dry  tunnel.  The  row 
of  iron  columns  12  feet  apart  through  the  centre  of  the 
tunnel  support  a  longitudinal  steel  girder,  upon 
which  rest  the  roof  sections.  These  iron  columns 
are  braced  from  the  side  by  the  transverse  girders 
that  support  the  track  beams. 

The  proposed  method   of  construction  will   admit 
of  great  rapidity  in  driving  the  tunnel,  as  the  side 


"111    ill 

Ill     ill 

111     ill     ill     ill     ill     ni     ill     ill     ill     ill     iiF 

ill    ill    il 

2~  —  '  —                            —  '  —  -^-^ 

DD  D  L 

i  n  n  n  - 

0 

J    LJ    LJ   LJ 

2 

H^ 

^^    II           V 

-«-""-«-"  -I 

/».' 

- 

mi?                j-^^^mM&mm 

FIG.  28.— LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  THE  RENO  TUNNEL. 

walls  can  be  built  in  advance  of  the  "heading,"  and 
all  four  tracks  could  be  utilized  in  removing  exca- 
vated material.  With  five  points  of  attack  giving 
ten  "headings"  and  an  average  speed  of  10  feet  per 
day  each,  the  tunnel  proper  could  be  constructed 
from  Battery  Park  to  Fifty-ninth  street  (five  miles) 
in  264  days.  The  building  of  the  stations  could  be 
carried  on  while  the  tunnel  is  in  progress. 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM. 


24:2      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

The  tunnel  is  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
"square  sets"  used  in  mine  timbering,  the  hori- 
zontal girders  resisting  the  pressure  of  the  tunnel's 
side  walls,  while  the  vertical  columns  divide  the 
span  of  the  roof.  The  proposed  method  of  construct- 
ing the  roof  and  driving  the  tunnel  hy  side  channel- 
ing and  small  blasts  insures  rapid  advancement 
in  rock  work,  and  will  not  unsettle  the  ground  sur- 
rounding underground  pipes  and  subways,  nor  inter- 
fere with  the  construction  or  operation  of  cable  rail- 
ways, nor  will  street  traffic  be  seriously  disturbed  in 
constructing  concrete  walls  from  the  surface.  The 
outside  width  of  the  tunnel  being  only  23  feet,  these 
side  walls  can  be  built  without  injury  to  the  founda- 
tions of  adjacent  buildings. 

The  line  of  iron  columns  through  the  centre  of 
the  tunnel  permits  the  use  of  a  flat  roof,  which  may 
come  to  within  about  10  feet  of  the  surface  without 
disturbing  underground  pipes  or  subways.  It  will 
readily  be  seen  that  the  open  spaces  between  the 
girders  and  ties  that  separate  the  two  levels  of 
the  tunnel  allow  free  circulation  of  air,  and  with 
the  use  of  electric  motors  insure  good  ventila- 
tion. 

Three  large  power  stations  would  be  located  along 
the  Hudson  Eiver,  where  real  estate  and  fuel  are 
cheap  and  water  for  condensing  is  plentiful.  In  this 
way  power  could  be  generated  at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  of  coal  per  horse-power  instead  of  10  pounds 
per  horse-power  now  required  on  the  engines  of  the 
New  York  elevated"  roads.  The  electric  conductor 
(which  could  be  of  heavy  copper  of  T-shaped  cross 
section  in  order  to  give  it  rigidity)  might  be  sup- 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  243 


244      RECENT  PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

ported  above  the  cars,  using  the  rails  and  structure 
as  an  auxiliary  conductor  for  the  return  current. 

Since  there  are  two  tracks  only,  on  each  level, 
cars  on  each  track  can  be  reached  without  incon- 
venience to  passengers  or  complicating  the  con- 
struction of  the  tunnel  at  the  station  platforms,  this 
feature  being  a  great  advantage  over  tunnel  sys- 
tems requiring  four  tracks  on  a  level.  Station  plat- 
forms, brilliantly  lighted  by  electricity,  could  easily 
be  reached  by  passengers  from  the  surface,  the  dis- 
tance to  local  train  platforms  being  20  feet,  and  to 
express  train  platforms  33  feet. 

The  lower  level  carrying  express  tracks  would 
be  available  for  trains  of  the  Hudson  and  East 
River  tunnels,  and  could  also  connect  with  the  New 
York  Central  trains  at  Forty-second  street.  The 
facility  for  handling  trains  rapidly  by  electricity 
would  be  such  that  loops  at  the  terminals  would 
probably  not  be  required,  and  the  express  tracks 
being  on  the  lower  level,  a  speed  of  as  high  as  40 
miles  an  hour  could  be  attained  without  causing 
vibration  of  the  structure. 

Fig.  30  shows  a  cast-iron  construction  that  it  is 
proposed  to  substitute  for  the  concrete  walls  and 
masonry  in  places  where,  from  very  great  dampness 
of  the  ground  or  other  special  reasons,  the  concrete 
walls  of  the  general  system  prove  undesirable.  For 
example,  in  running  a  line  of  Reno  tunnel  up  Broad- 
way, the  cast-iron  construction  would  be  employed 
for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  length  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  city,  below  Grand  street,  for  instance. 
In  this  the  walls,  roofs,  and  floors  are  composed  of 
flanged  panels  of  cast  iron  about  two  feet  in  width, 


UNDERGROUND   (TUNNEL)   SYSTEM.  245 

set  in  place  in  the  rear  of  a  shield  pushed  forward 
hydraulically ;  this  shield  will  not  be  circular,  as  in 
most  cases  where  it  has  been  employed,  but  rect- 
angular in  section  to  cut  the  tunnel  to  the  exact 
size  necessary.  The  shield  will  be  advanced  for  two 
feet,  and  then  the  eight  iron  panels  will  be  placed 
in  position  and  bolted  at  the  flanges,  after  which 
a  grouting  of  liquid  cement  will  be  forced  through 
holes  left  for  the  purpose  and  form  a  solid  packing 
that  both  prevents  the  entrance  of  water  and  shields 
the  iron  from  corrosion.  The  method  is  a  common 
one  in  tunneling  work,  and  has  been  employed  on 
the  Croton  Aqueduct.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  city 
the  plans  described  first  would  be  followed  as  being 
simpler,  cheaper,  and  more  easily  applied  in  ground 
of  the  character  to  be  found  on  that  part  of  Manhat- 
tan Island.  As  before  mentioned,  the  grouting  would 
be  freely  used  to  make  the  tunnel  perfectly  tight 
and  prevent  any  difficulties  from  moisture  or  sewer 
gas  forcing.their  way  in. 

The  following  estimate  per  mile  (excluding  the 
stations)  furnished  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Reno,  the  inventor 
of  the  plan,  is  based  upon  similar  contracts  in  the 
Croton  Aqueduct,  and  places  the  total  at  not  far 
from  one  and  a  quarter  millions  per  mile : 


EARTHWORK  AND  MASONRY. 

Outside  area  of  tunnel,  24  X  28— allowing  an  average  of  one-half 

rock  work  and  one-lialf  earth  work : 

66,440  cubic  yards  earth  excavation  at  $2.50 $166,100 

66,440      "          "       rock  "  at  $6 438,504 

Side  walls  (concrete,  3  to  1),  2  feet  thick  at  top,  3  feet  at  bottom  and 

flarin.sr  out  to  4  feet  base  ;  28  feet  high  : 

Two  walls,  28,160  cubic  yards  concrete  at  $6 168,960 

Earth  excavation  for  same,  17,600  cubic  yards  at  $1.40 24,640 

Rock  "  "         "        17,600       "  "        at  $2.50 44,000 

Line  of  masonry  under  centre  iron  columns,  1,460  cubic  yards  at  $10.      14,608 
Concrete  iloor,  18  inches  thick,  4,671  cubic  yards  at  $5 23,355 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

STEEL  STRUCTURE. 

410  cast-iron  columns,  24  feet  long,  12  inches  diameter,  2  inches 

thick  =  4,883  pounds  each,  at  2  cents 42,680 

21.120  lineal  feet  12  inch  I-beams,  781,440  pounds,  at  3  cents 23,443 

-40  transverse  12-inch  I-beaius,22  feet  long  e;ich  =  9,680  feet,  at  $1.11..  10,744 

5/280  feet  20-inch  I-beams  for  centre  of  roof,  at  $2.20 11,721 

5,280 feet  "channel"  steel  sections  tor  roof, 22  feet  long,  12  X8X  X  inch, 

1,552  pounds  each,  at  3  cents... 245,836 

87  pounds  steel  rails,  14,080  yards  =  612  tons,  at  $30 18,360 

] 0.560  creosoted  ties  (2  feet  apart),  at  60  cents 6,336 

Spikes,  fastenings,  etc 6,000 

Total $1,232,371 

Munsie-Coles  Underground  System  (Proposed).— In 


FIG.  31.— SECTION  OP  THE  MUNSIE-COLES  UNDERGROUND  SYSTEM. 

its  construction  the  transverse  girders  are  made  in 
sections,  to  admit  of  placing  the  vertical  columns  in 
position  without  obstruction  to  the  daily  street 
traffic,  and,  by  a  proper  distribution  of  labor  and 
material  to  make  it  possible  to  place  the  superstruc- 
ture and  new  paving  in  place  without  any  interfer- 
ence with  the  ordinary  travel  of  the  street.  By  two 
open  slots  from  the  tunnel  to  the  surface  of  streets 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  24? 

ventilation  of  the  tunnel  is  provided  for  while  the 
labor  of  excavating  is  in  progress.  The  vertical 
depth  required  from  the  surface  of  the  street  to  the 
bottom  of  the  foundation  for  the  concrete  floor  is  11^ 
feet.  The  superstructure,  with  the  paving,  which  is 
of  steel,  is  very  light,  but  strong,  and  will  not 
require  over  14  inches  from  the  top  of  the  paving  to 
the  bottom  of  the  transverse  girder. 

To  permit  the  running  of  cars  of  such  a  height  of 
body  as  would  accommodate  ordinary  travel,  and  at 
the  same  time  utilize  the  limited  vertical  space  of 
the  tunnel,  the  body  of  the  car  hangs  between 
trucks  of  special  construction,  which  admits  of  the 
use  of  a  very  high  wheel  to  give  an  easy  motion 
while  running  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  or  in  passing 
around  curves.  With  the  open  slots  located  between 
the  surface  railroad  tracks,  both  underground  and 
surface  cars  can  be  worked  from  the  same  circuit  as 
shown  in  the  cut. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

HIGH  SPEED  INTERURBAN  RAILROADS. 

During  the  past  year  an  entirely  new  branch  of 
electric  railroad  engineering  has  arisen,  namely,  the 
introduction  of  electric  railroads  to  replace  the  pres- 
ent steam  roads  running  from  one/city  to  another, 
as  distinguished  from  local  roads  in  a  city.  From 
present  appearances  this  subject  promises  to  be  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  important  branches  in  elec- 
trical engineering,  as  it  contemplates  not  only  the 
replacing  of  the  present  steam  locomotives,  but  also 


248      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

promises  an  increase  of  speed  of  more  than  double 
what  is  accomplished  now  by  steam  locomotives, 
and  to  increase  the  frequency  of  trains,  both  of 
which  will  diminish  the  time  it  takes  to  go  from 
one  city  to  another  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  a 
most  important  bearing  on  the  development  of 
commerce  and  industries. 

The  speed  of  steam  locomotives  may  be  said  to 
have  reached  almost  if  not  quite  the  possible  maxi- 
mum, considering  both  safety  and  efficiency. 
Although  isolated  cases  are  recorded  in  which  phe- 
nomenal speeds  have  been  made,  yet  they  are 
exceptional  and  not  regular,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  even  with  the  most  improved  engines  the 
speed  can  be  materially  increased.  The  best  regular 
running  time  on  some  roads  is  from  50  to  60  miles 
an  hour,  which  may  be  considered  to  be  the  maxi- 
mum at  present  attained  in  regular  service, 
although  for  short  distances  the  speed  sometimes 
reaches  70  miles.  A  recent  run  was  reported  on  the 
Bound  Brook  Line,  between  Neshaminy  Falls  and 
Langhorn,  N.  J.,  of  a  Wootten  steam  locomotive,  in 
which  a  single  mile  was  made  in  39|  seconds,  which 
is  equivalent  to  90. 45  miles  an  hour;  10  consecutive 
miles  were  made  at  43  seconds  per  mile,  or  a  speed 
of  83.72  miles  an  hour.  Owing  to  the  danger  and 
inefficiency,  however,  it  is  not  likely  that  such 
speeds  will  be  attained  in  regular  service  on  the 
present  steam  roads.  The  limitations  of  speed  with 
the  present  steam  locomotives'are  due  to  the  heavy 
reciprocating  parts,  which  not  only  are  in  constant 
danger  of  being  strained  or  broken  by  such  rapid 
oscillating  motion,  but  which,  as  they  cannot  be 


HIGH   SPEED  INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  249 

completely  balanced,  both  statically  and  dynamic- 
ally, impart  to  the  engine  an  oscillating  motion 
which  is  a  source  of  great  danger  of  derailment,  and 
requires  an  exceptionally  heavy  roadbed  and  con- 
struction to  resist  it.  But  supposing  even  that  the 
reciprocating  parts  did  not  limit  the  speed,  the  size 
and  weight  of  an  engine  and  the  amount  of  fuel 
which  would  have  to  be  carried  for  the  enormous 
powers  required  at  high  speed  would  alone  render 
that  system  impracticable,  In  an  electric  motor,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are  absolutely  no  reciproca- 
ting parts  and  their  speed  is  therefore  limited  only 
to  that  at  which  a  body  may  be  revolved  around  a 
shaft ;  this  limit  is  that  at  which  such  bodies  would 
burst,  due  to  centrifugal  force.  Prof.  Wm.  Marks,  in 
a  lecture  on  high-speed  rai1roads;  states  that  no 
matter  whether  the  wheels  are  large  or  small,  the 
limiting  speed  due  to  bursting  admits  of  a  maximum 
safe  speed  of  24  miles  a  minute,  that  is,  150  miles  an 
hour.  Assuming  his  calculations  to  be  correct,  this 
is  the  maximum  speed  which  any  car  running  on 
revolving  wheels  can  ever  attain,  no  matter  what 
the  source  of  power  is. 

In  actual  practice  the  time  it  takes  to  go  from  one 
city  to  another  is  not  dependent  only  on  the  speed 
of  the  trains,  but  also  on  their  frequency,  as  the 
time  lost  in  waiting  for  a  train  might  in  many  cases 
almost  as  well  be  consumed  on  the  road.  The  pres- 
ent steam  system  does  not  adapt  itself  well  for  the 
running  of  frequent  short  trains,  but  an  electric  sys- 
tem is  specially  well  suited  for  just  that  kind  of  ser- 
vice. If,  for  instance,  short  trains  or  single  cars 
could  be  run  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  every 


250     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

ten  minutes,  instead  of  a  long  train  every  hour,  the 
time  it  takes  to  go  from  the  one  city  to  the  other 
would  be  materially  reduced  in  many  cases,  even 
if  the  present  speed  was  not  exceeded. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  this  subject  of 
high  speed  interurban  traffic  by  electrical  motors 
during  the  past  year,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  in 
the  near  future  some  actual  trials  will  be  made.  It 
is  reported  that  a  certain  large  railroad  in  this  coun- 
try is  at  present  building  an  experimental  line,  which 
is  to  be  run  by  electric  motors  and  on  which  experi- 
ments are  to  be  made  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility 
of  its  introduction  on  a  large  scale. 

The  advantages,  the  possibilities,  and  the  require- 
ments of  high  speed  systems  will  be  best  seen  from 
the  extracts  given  below,  taken  from  published 
opinions.  The  most  interesting  literature  on  the 
subject  which  has  appeared  during  the  past  year  is 
a  paper  by  Mr.  O.  T.  Crosby,  read  before  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  February  24, 
1891,  a  reprint  of  which  will  be  found  in  The  Elec- 
trical World  of  March  14.  This  paper  is  a  record 
of  some  very  interesting  experiments  made  on  a 
small  scale  and  includes  a  project  of  a  road  on  a 
large  scale  worked  out  in  detail,  including  also  a 
summary  of  the  commercial  aspect  of  such  a  pro- 
ject. Space  does  not  permit  us  to  reprint  it  here,  but 
any  one  interested  in  the  subject  should  not  fail  to 
read  it.  Attention  is  also  called  to  the  chapter  on 
high  speed  service  in  a  book  recently  published, 
called  "The  Electric  Railway,"  by  Crosby  and  Bell, 
in  which  part  of  the  above  paper  is  included,  and  is 
accompanied  by  much  additional  information.  In 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  251 

addition  to  these,  an  article  on  train  resistance  will 
be  found  in  a  paper  on  "Limitations  of  Steam  and 
Electricity,"  by  O.  T.  Crosby,  read  before  the  Amer- 
ican Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  May  21,  1890, 
and  reprinted  in  The  Electrical  World  May  31, 1890. 
In  reference  to  the  atmospheric  resistance  to  rapidly 
moving  trains,  a  paper  was  read  by  the  same  author 
before  the  West  Point  Branch  of  the  Military  Ser- 
vice Institute,  which  was  published  in  Engineering 
(London)  May  31  to  June  13,  1890,  and  reprinted 
in  abstract  in  The  Electrical  World,  May  3,  1890. 

Regarding  the  efficiency  of  high  speed  traffic,  Mr. 
Crosby  has  made  some  very  interesting  calculations 
to  show  at  what  speed  electric  traction  becomes 
feasible.  As  a  result  of  these  deductions  he  states: 
"  At  a  speed  of  20  miles  an  hour  and  with  an  effi- 
ciency of  90  per  cent.,  and  a  frequency  which  is  not 
excessive  as  compared  with  the  local  traffic,  say  of 
the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  the  electrical  pro- 
pulsion is  slightly  more  economical  than  steam  pro- 
pulsion. Now,  as  you  increase  your  speed  the  rela- 
tive value  of  the  electrical  propulsion  increases  enor- 
mously, and  finally  at  high  speed,  say  120  miles,  the 
electrical  propulsion  is  something  like  six  times 
more  economical  than  steam  propulsion,  considering 
steam  propulsion  even  possible.  But  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  propel  ordinary  trains  by  steam  at  120  miles 
for  any  length  of  line  worthy  of  consideration, 
because  the  amount  of  coal  and  wrater  that  you  are 
required  to  carry  has  reached  a  quantity  that  would 
require  two  or  three  tenders  to  take  care  of.  You 
can  see  readily  that  it  is  a  cumulative  thing.  Every 
pound  of  coal  you  put  in  requires  some  more  coal  to 


252     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

be  burnt  to  pull  that  pound,  and  you  have  to  carry 
it,  and  you  have  water,  so  that  when  you  get  to  the 
high  speeds  it  is  out  of  the  question,  and  we  have 
nothing  to  look  for  at  very  high  speeds,  save  elec- 
trical propulsion.  But  if  we  come  to  comparatively 
low  speed  service,  and  a  comparatively  infrequent 
service,  the  steam  will  beat  us." 

Regarding  heavy  freight  service,  the  same  writer 
concludes  that  "heavy  freight  service,  unless  its 
frequency  is  far  beyond  anything  we  have  to-day, 
can  be  carried  on  more  economically  by  steam  than 
by  electricity." 

Regarding  the  point  at  which  high  speed  electric 
roads  begin  to  be  practicable,  Mr.  Crosby  gives  as 
his  opinion :  "  I  do  not  think  there  is  anything  what- 
ever in  high  speed  work  for  say,  even  40  miles.  I  do 
not  think  you  can  properly  do  120  miles  an  hour  for 
a  run  of,  say,  30  or  40  miles.  It  is  applicable  only  to 
connecting  very  large  cities.  I  think  you  could  run 
from  here  to  Albany,  if  you  had  the  New  York 
Central  line  to  run  on  ;  from  Albany  to  Rochester, 
from  Rochester  to  Buffalo,  and  then  stopping  at  the 
principal  lake  cities.  It  might  be  found  later  on 
that  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  shorter  stops ; 
but  the  first  efforts  should  be  made  only  with  very 
long  runs." 

Regarding  automatic  systems  he  says:  "I  do  not 
consider  it  practicable  to  run  a  train — that  is,  of 
size  enough  to  make  it  commercial— without  a  man 
on  it.  I  think  the  enormous  complexity  of  an  auto- 
matic system  that  would  take  care  of  the  entrance 
into  a  city  and  the  departure  from  a  city,  and  of  all 
the  varying  conditions  of  service,  without  a  man  on 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  253 

board,  is  really  beyond  anything  that  would  stand 
up.  You  might  put  it  all  down  to  work  and  have 
trains  011  it,  but  I  think  the  complexity  would  soon 
break  it  down." 

On  the  same  point  Mr.  F.  J.  Sprague  writes:  "I 
wish  to  take  the  decided  position  that  no  automatic 
system  of  high  speed  service  for  either  passengers, 
freight,  or  mail  will  ever  come  to  a  commercial 
issue.  I  will  go  further  still ,  the  moment  you  deny 
to  a  man  the  privilege  of  traveling  100  or  150  miles 
an  hour  you  will  have  a  flood  of  applications  from 
people  that  want  the  opportunity." 

Mr.  F.  L.  Pope,  on  the  other  hand,  in  his  report  on 
the  Portelectric  system  (which  will  be  found  de- 
scribed below  under  the  heading  of  miscellaneous 
systems)  states :  "  The  opinion  has  recently  been 
publicly  expressed  by  an  electrical  engineer  of  repu- 
tation and  experience  that  no  automatic  system  of 
high-speed  service  for  either  passengers,  freight,  or 
mail,  can  ever  come  to  a  commercial  issue.  No 
arguments  were  adduced  in  support  of  this  dictum, 
and,  for  my  part,  I  am  wholly  unable  to  see  any 
good  reason  why  this  assertion  should  have  been 
made  in  such  an  unqualified  and  authoritative  man- 
ner. The  experiments  conducted  under  my  direc- 
tion at  Dorchester  are,  in  my  opinion,  sufficient  to 
prove  the  contrary." 

Regarding  derailment  at  such  high  speeds,  a 
prominent  civil  engineer,  at  one  time  professionally 
connected  with  the  Lake  Shore  road,  expressed  the 
opinion  that  safety  from  derailment  at  very  high 
speeds  would  be  best  secured  by  very  slightly  cur- 
ving the  line  of  the  road  just  sufficient  to  cause  the 


254      RECENT   PROGRESS   IK    ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

flanges  of  the  wheels  to  bear  constantly  against  one 
side.  With  that  construction  he  should  expect  that 
any  possible  speed  up  to,  say,  200  miles  an  hour, 
that  could  be  got  from  the  motors,  would  be  per- 
fectly safe.  He  was  led  to  this  conclusion  from  long 
observation  of  the  performances  on  the  Lake  Shore 
road  of  railroad  wheels  at  high  speed,  on  which 
road  some  of  the  best  running  in  this  country  has 
been  done. 

Regarding  the  traction  co-efficient,  Dr.  P.  H.  Dud- 
ley, referring  to  some  experiments  made  *by  him  on 
the  resistance  of  different  trains  on  steam  roads, 
states :  " The  experiments  were  made  several  years 
ago,  and  not  on  as  good  tracks  as  we  have  at  the 
present  time.  The  resistance  of  the  passenger  train 
is  given  by  the  formulae  in  books  as  17  or  18  pounds 
per  ton.  I  found  on  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern  Railway  and  the  New  York  Central  & 
Hudson  River  Railroad  that,  with  trains  of  about  250 
tons,  the  resistance  was  only  from  10  to  12  pounds 
per  ton  at  speeds  of  from  50  to  60  miles  per  hour. 
The  resistance  per  ton  is  not  nearly  so  great  on 
those  long  trains  as  on  the  short  ones.  With  trains 
of  two  and  three  cars,  sometimes  it  ran  as  high  as 
35  or  40  pounds  per  ton,  but  with  long  trains  it  ran 
down  to  about  10  and  12  pounds  per  ton. 

"The  greatest  variable  that  we  find  from  day  to 
day  over  the  same  track  and  same  train  is  the  wind 
resistance.  I  found  in  one  special  experiment  I 
made  in  1878,  to  see  why  the  New  York  Central  was 
not  able  to  make  its  time  with  its  trains,  that  on  a 
still  day,  with  the  schedules  they  had,  they  were 
able  to  make  time,  but  a  wind  of  10  or  12  miles 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  255 

would  retard  the  trains,  so  that  in  running  from 
Buffalo  to  New  York  they  would  lose  two  hours. 
The  trouble  at  that  time  was  that  the  boilers  were 
not  large  enough  to  quickly  generate  the  steam 
required  to  meet  the  increased  resistance.  The 
trains  would  run  up  to  a  speed  just  about  the  capa- 
city of  the  boiler,  and  that  would  limit  the  speed 
they  could  maintain.  Therefore,  when  a  head  or 
side  wind  was  blowing  against  them  the  speed  of 
the  train  would  be  reduced  very  materially. 

"  The  fastest  speed  usually  found  on  trains  is  in 
the  local  passenger  service,  for  5  to  20  seconds — 
especially  those  stopping  every  two  or  three  miles. 
They  often  attain  a  speed  for  a  few  seconds  as  high 
as  55  or  60  miles  per  hour.  Then  they  shut  off  steam 
and  apply  the  brakes,  to  stop  the  train.  The  heavy 
trains  of  eight  to  ten  cars,  running  long  distances, 
rarely  attain  60  miles  an  hour — that  is,  on  the  ordi- 
nary schedules. 

"  The  greatest  improvement  that  has  been  made  in 
decreasing  train  resistance  is  in  the  improvement 
of  the  track  by  bringing  up  the  standard  of  excel- 
lence and  adoption  of  heavier  and  stiffer  rails.  I 
have  been  making  a  number  of  heavy  rail  sections 
for  different  railroads,  and  instead  of  making  them 
simply  heavy  I  have  made  them  very  stiff,  which 
has  reduced  the  deflection  or  wave  motion  under 
each  of  the  wheels.  Comparing  the  resistance  of 
the  Chicago  Limited  Express  on  stiff  80-pound 
rails  with  that  of  65-pound  rails  which  have 
been  on  the  track  some  time,  it  makes  a  difference 
of  75  to  100  horse-power  per  mile.  I  have  just  made 
some  95-pound  rails  for  a  road  which  will  be 


256      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

very  much  stiffer  than  the  80-pound  rails.  We 
find  now  that  the  condition  in  which  they  are  keep- 
ing the  line  is  so  perfect  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
oscillation  on  the  best  roads,  and  there  is  very  little 
difference  in  the  oscillation  now  in  riding  on  a 
tangent  or  a  curve.  I  should  prefer  a  tangent  for 
smooth  riding,  although  the  wheels  press  against 
the  rails  on  curves.  Unless  they  are  properly  ele- 
vated, there  will  be  some  oscillation,  though  our 
present  trains  move  very  steadily  on  the  best  tracks. 
I  have  made  careful  experiments,  and  with  a  track 
in  good  condition  the  heavy  cars  ride  very  steadily, 
leaving  little  to  be  desired." 

Regarding  the  difference  of  the  traction  co-efficient 
of  high  speed  roads  and  the  ordinary  street  roads, 
Mr.  Sprague  states:  "If  you  are  dealing  with  street 
car  service,  it  is  one  thing.  If  you  are  dealing  with 
high  speed,  clean  rail  service,  it  is  an  entirely  differ- 
ent thing.  I  have  found,  so  far  as  my  practical 
experience  goes,  that  the  dirt  on  the  track,  the  snow 
and  mud,  and  the  grades,  were  the  questions  that 
determined  the  power  of  the  motors.  When  you 
consider  that  with  20  pounds  traction  per  ton,  the 
work  on  a  one  per  cent,  grade  is  equal  to  the  work 
of  traction,  and  that  our  street  car  service  demands 
12,  13,  and  even  14  per  cent,  grade  work,  the  ques- 
tion of  rail  traction  on  a  level  amounts  to  very  little 
in  street  car  motor  design,  but  it  does  amount  to 
the  greatest  possible  importance  in  high  speed  ser- 
vice. " 

In  discussing  the  subject  of  rails,  which  is  of  such 
vital  importance  in  high  speed  work,  Dr.  P.  H.  Dud- 
ley gave  some  interesting  figures  and  results  ob- 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  257 

tained  by  him  from  a  series  of  elaborate  experiments. 
In  describing  the  results  obtained  from  improved 
forms  of  rails,  he  says :  "  About  the  best  results  are  a 
reduction  of  nearly  100  horse-power  per  mile  com- 
pared with  the  ordinary  65-pound  rail.  I  have 
designed  some  105-pound  rails  which  are  nearly 
1,100  per  cent,  stiffer  than  the  80-pound  rails.  We 
will  probably  save  on  the  fast  express  trains  nearly 
200  horse-power  per  mile,  as  compared  with  worn  60 
or  65-pound  rails.  We  have  not  rolled  such  a  large 
rail  yet;  but  it  will  not  be  long,  probably,  before 
that  will  be  done.  All  trials  show  a  very  material 
reduction  in  train  resistance  with  the  heavy  rails, 
as  we  increase  the  stiffness.  I  think  it  will  be  per- 
fectly safe  011  a  track  of  the  105-pound  rails  to  run 
120  miles  an  hour.  I  have  ridden  several  times  75 
miles  an  hour  on  heavy  rails,  and  did  not  feel  it 
nearly  so  much  as  on  the  light  rails  when  running 
45  miles  an  hour.  There  is  scarcely  any  oscillation. 
The  track  is  in  perfect  line  and  the  joints  are  all 
kept  up.  One  serious  trouble  with  many  of  the  rail- 
road people  is  that,  while  they  want  a  heavy  rail, 
they  never  consider  the  question  of  stiffness.  I  dis- 
tribute my  metal  so  as  to  make  the  section  very 
stiff,  not  allowing  so  much  in  depth  of  the  head  of 
the  rail  as  usually  is  done,  but  widening  the  head, 
because  when  these  rails  have  been  in  the  track  a 
few  years  they  become  worn  very  unevenly,  and 
must  be  removed  from  the  track.  I  am  making  the 
heads  on  that  account  very  much  broader  and  the 
sections  stiff,  so  the  deflection  of  my  75  and  80-pound 
rail  is  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  the  track. 
We  mark  all  those  rails  for  any  deflection  exceed- 


258      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

ing  three  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch,  under  a  load  of 
six  tons  per  wheel.  That  is  about  as  close  a»  the 
trackmen  can  work  on  a  65-pound  rail.  On  an  80- 
pound  rail  they  can  work  closer,  but  require  great 
skill."  He  described  the  condition  in  which  tracks 
were  found,  after  continued  service,  for  illustrations 
of  which  see  The  Electrical  World,  p.  230,  March 
21,  1891.  To  study  the  unevennesses  in  tracks  he  uses 
an  ingenious  device  which  is  carried  on  the  moving 
train  and  which  ejects  paint. on  the  rails  wherever 
there  is  a  certain  deflection. 

Regarding  the  braking  of  trains  Mr.  E.  P. 
Thompson  states :  "  I  found  in  some  tests  made  by 
me  in  behalf  of  a  brake  company  upon  a  railway 
in  Pennsylvania  that  if  it  needs  a  certain  amount  of 
energy  to  start  a  train  it  needs  about  nine-tenths  as 
much  to  make  an  emergency  stop." 

Referring  to  the  possible  recovery  of  energy  in 
braking  a  train  Mr.  F.  J.  Sprague  states:  "From 
careful  calculations  I  know  it  to  be  possible  to 
return  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  energy  used 
back  to  the  line,  and  the  facility  with  which  this 
can  be  done  increases  very  rapidly  with  the  size  of 
machine  which  is  used.  Where  you  can  use  shunt 
machines,  and  excite  your  field  magnets  up  to  a 
very  high  saturation,  and  have  a  very  reasonable 
latitude  of  variation,  the  criticism  that  was  made 
that  there  would  be  a  loss  in  energizing  the  field 
magnets  more  than  when  in  using  series  machines 
I  do  not  think  holds  particularly  good,  for  this 
reason,  that  the  total  energy  used  in  the  field 
magnets  forms  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  total 
amount  of  energy  used  on  the  line,  and  if  the  return 


HIGH   SPEED  INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  259 

energy  is  40  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  the  field 
energy  of  the  magnet  is  only  two  or  three  per  cent, 
of  the  total,  the  value  of  this  method  seems  ap- 
parent." 

Descriptive. 

One  of  the  most  complete  projects  published,  on 
rapid  transit  between  cities,  is  contained  in  a  very 
interesting  lecture  delivered  by  Mr.  Carl  Ziper- 
nowsky,  at  the  Frankfort  Congress,  on  a  proposed 
road  between  Vienna  and  Budapest,  entitled  "  Elec- 
tric Railroads  for  Rapid  Transit  Between  Cities."  It 
contains  so  many  points  of  interest  that  we  give  a 
translation  here  in  full,  as  follows : 

Introductory.— The  need  of  some  means  for  in- 
creasing the  speed  of  trains  between  cities,  above 
that  which  can  be  accomplished  by  the  present  rail- 
roads, is  becoming  a  question  of  such  importance 
that  it  is  now  only  a  matter  of  a  short  time  before 
something  will  be  done,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
we  have  occupied  ourselves  with  a  proposed  elec- 
trical railroad  to  accomplish  this  object. 

All  persons  who  have  much  traveling  to  do  will 
appreciate  the  great  loss  of  time  while  on  the  road. 
To  increase  the  speed  of  the  present  system  of  rail- 
roads above  100  kilometres  (62  miles)  an  hour  may 
be  excluded  as  impracticable.  The  reciprocating 
motion  of  heavy  parts  of  express  locomotives  gives 
rise  to  oscillations  which  greatly  strain  the  rolling 
stock  as  well  as  the  roadbed.  For  this  reason  the 
present  system  of  steam  locomotives  is  limited  as 
to  maximum  speed.  With  electrical  motors  there 
are  no  reciprocating  parts,  and  the  limitation  of  the 
speed  due  to  the  reciprocating  motions  does  not 


260      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

exist ;  the  speed  can,  therefore,  be  increased  above 
the  present  limit,  without  increasing  the  strain  on 
the  rolling  stock  or  the  roadbed.  The  electrical 
locomotive  needs  no  coal,  no  water,  no  tender,  no 
generator  of  power,  only  a  motor  whose  rotating 
parts  are  directly  on  the  axles. 

The  electrical  railroad  has  these  advantages: 
it  offers  the  possibilities  of  a  new  system  of  transit 
which,  owing  to  the  great  increase  of  speed  which 
it  admits,  adapts  itself  particularly  well  to  the  rap- 
idly inreasing  demands  for  rapid  transit.  As  soon  as 
the  possibility  is  shown,  the  working  out  of  the 
details  will  soon  follow,  as  the  very  rapidly  increas- 
ing demands  of  commerce  make  it  necessary  that 
everything  possible  be  done  to  accomplish  this  end, 
and  it  is  certain  that  within  a  few  years  such  rail- 
roads will  be  built  between  some  large  cities,  which 
are  closely  connected  commercially.  It  may  also  be 
predicted  that  whole  continents  will  be  crossed  by 
such  railroads. 

We  chose  for  our  project  the  two  chief  cities  of 
the  Austrian-Hungarian  empire,  Vienna  and  Buda- 
pest, not  only  because  there  is  a  very  large  inter- 
course between  them,  but  also  because  this  lies  on  the 
throughfare  between  the  centres  of  the  oriental 
and  the  western  countries.  An  electrical  rapid  tran- 
sit road  between  Budapest  and  Vienna  will  form 
the  beginning  of  a  through  line  from  the  east  to 
Paris  and  Havre  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Berlin  and 
Hamburg  on  the  other. 

This  projected  road  is  furthermore  particularly 
well  adapted  for  an  experimental  road,  as  it  intro- 
duces all  the  difficulties  encountered  in  building 


HIGH   SPEED  INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  261 

such  a  road  through  different  kinds  of  country.  The 
crossing  of  the  wooded  hills  of  Bakonyer,  the  very 
low  islands  of  a  branch  of  the  Danube,  and  the  hilly 
country  between  the  Danube  and  the  Leitha  Moun- 
tains, gave  us  the  opportunity  to  show  how  we 
would  build  such  a  road  over  flat  lands,  hills,  and 
through  mountains,  and  what  fundamental  princi- 
ples we  would  lay  down. 

Before  going  into  this,  we  wish  to  mention  that, 
from  the  nature  of  such  a  system,  there  would  not 
be  trains  of  cars  at  long  intervals,  but  on  the  con- 
trary single  cars  for  few  persons,  following  each 
other  in  quick  succession.  This  is  preferred  not 
only  in  order  to  have  frequent  connections  between 
the  cities  rather  than  occasional  fast  trains  carrying 
many  people,  but  more  particularly  for  technical 
reasons,  namely,  to  have  the  greatest  economy  in 
the  power  used  per  car,  and  to  equalize  as  much  as 
possible  the  consumption  of  power  over  the  whole 
line.  The  smaller  the  weight  of  a  train,  the  smaller 
will  be  the  motors,  the  smaller  the  current  consumed 
per  train,  the  simpler,  surer,  and  cheaper  will  be  the 
leads.  The  smaller  the  units,  the  surer  and  the  more 
profitable  will  be  the  working  of  the  system,  because 
one  can  prepare  for  the  variations  in  the  traffic  dur- 
ing the  day,  and  can  thereby  always  obtain  a  more 
favorable  relation  between  the  dead  and  the  live 
loads.  Small  units  at  short  intervals  have  the  addi- 
tional advantage  that  the  leads  are  more  equally 
loaded  than  they  would  be  with  long  heavy  trains. 
The  utilization  of  the  leads  and  the  machines 
becomes  more  nearly  constant,  and  the  whole  plant 
will  be  more  efficient.  The  increase  in  the  number 


RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

of  employes  necessitated  by  such  a  system  is  negli- 
gently small  as  compared  with  the  very  greatly 
increased  cost  which  would  be  necessitated  by  run- 
ning the  plant  under  unfavorable  circumstances. 
These  are  the  reasons  which  have  led  us  to  adopt 
this  tramway  system  in  preference  to  the  usual  rail- 
way system. 

In  order  to  design  the  cars  and  roadbed,  it  was 
necessary  first  to  determine  upon  the  speed,  the 
shortest  time  intervals  between  the  trains,  the  num- 
ber of  passengers  and  the  nature  of  the  cars,  and  to 
base  on  these  values  the  size  and  shape  of  the  cars, 
the  power  required  and  the  size  of  tbe  motors,  the 
total  weight  of  a  car,  the  roadbed,  the  method  of 
distributing  the  current,  etc. 

As  to  the  speed,  we  wish  to  reach  the  maximum 
which  appears  to  be  possible  to  attain  with  simple 
adhesion  and  a  modified  roadbed.  The  speed  can  be 
increased  only  up  to  the  limit  of  the  strength  of  the 
materials,  especially  of  that  of  the  wheels.  This 
limit  is  shown  by  calculation  to  be  about  250  kilo- 
metres per  hour  (155  miles  per  hour,  or  about  2£  miles 
per  minute).  The  circumferential  speed  of  the 
wheels  of  2.5  metres  (about  8  feet  3  inches)  diame- 
ter, becomes  so  great,  being  nearly  70  metres  (229 
feet)  per  second,  that  the  bursting  due  to  centrifu- 
gal force  comes  into  consideration.  It  may  be 
shown  that  even  with  wheels  made  of  discs  it  is 
not  safe  to  exceed  the  circumferential  speed  of  70 
metres  per  second,  as  even  the  best  materials  at  our 
disposal  do  not  all'>w  a  sufficiently  large  factor  of 
safety  against  rupture. 

The  adhesion  also  limits  the  speed  to  which  we 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  263 

may  go  in  order  to  be  able  to  propel  a  car  with  suffi- 
cient reliability.  But  this  limit  cannot  be  readily 
determined,  as  the  grades,  nature  of  the  materials, 
weather,  and  similar  factors  vary  very  greatly.  It 
is  not  possible  to  determine,  therefore,  the  speed  at 
which  propulsion  is  still  possible,  and  we  are  com- 
pelled in  this  case  to  make  an  approximate  estimate 
on  the  basis  of  the  greatest  grades. 

We  will  assume  that  the  maximum  speed  attaina- 
ble with  single  cars  is  250  kilometres  on  the  level 
and  200  on  the  grades.  The  intervals  between  the 
cars  will  be  regulated  by  the  traffic  and  the  size  of 
the  car.  Here,  too,  there  is  a  limit  due  to  safety ; 
no  car  should  follow  another  at  a  less  distance  than 
that  at  which  it  can  be  brought  to  a  stop  if  some- 
thing should  delay  the  one  ahead.  The  stopping 
and  signaling  evidently  depend  on  the  facilities  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose.  If  we  were  to  employ  for 
such  rapid  transit  the  same  system  of  signaling  as 
on  the  present  roads  at  100  kilometres  speed,  we 
would  run  the  risk  of  their  failing  at  this  high 
speed,  at  which  both  seeing  and  hearing  are  ren- 
dered difficult  and  unreliable.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  adopt  an  entirely  new  system  of  sig- 
naling specially  designed  for  such  speed.  Further- 
more, there  must  be  provisions  for  the  case  that  the 
signals  should  fail  to  be  seen  from  the  car,  in  which 
case  the  signaling  station  must  be  able  to  stop  any 
car  even  without  any  further  signaling,  which  is 
easily  accomplished  on  electrical  roads  by  simply 
introducing  switches  controlling  the  main  current. 
The  cars  may  be  said  to  be  controlled  from  the  out- 
side as  in  the  case  of  pneumatic  tube  projectiles. 


2f>4     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  minimum  interval  between  cars,  therefore, 
is  determined  by  the  condition  that  a  car  cannot 
move  any  farther,  by  virtue  of  its  momentum  and  a 
possible  grade,  after  the  current  has  been  turned 
off,  than  a  certain  minimum  distance,  which  must 
be  kept,  for  safety's  sake,  between  it  and  the  pre- 
ceding car,  even  when  at  rest.  This  distance  can  be 
made  less  the  better  the  braking  facilities  on  the 
car,  and  the  surer  the  engineer  is  to  notice  when 
the  current  has  been  cut  off  by  the  signaling  station. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  smallest  interval  be- 
tween cars  can  be  determined  only  in  connection 
with  the  braking  facilities,  but  it  should  not  be  made 
less  than  10  minutes.  This  minimum  interval  is,  of 
course,  only  for  those  hours  of  the  day  when  there 
is  most  travel. 

The  capacity  of  the  cars  must  be  such  as  the 
densest  traffic  demands;  but  on  the  other  hand  the 
cars  should  not  be  any  larger  or  heavier  than  is 
necessary,  for  reasons  already  given,  for  which 
reasons  it  would  also  be  inadvisable  to  couple  sev- 
eral cars  into  a  train.  The  determination  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  cars  is  difficult  to  make  until  one 
has  had  experience  in  how  far  the  public  would 
patronize  such  rapid  transit.  But  we  believe  that  it 
is  safe  to  estimate  40  seats  to  a  car,  and  intervals  of 
from  10  to  60  minutes.  During  the  times  of  great- 
est travel  200  persons  could  be  carried  per  hour, 
which  surely  is  considerable;  during  the  times  of 
least  travel  this  would  be  reduced  to  about  50  per 
hour. 

Besides  the  transporting  of  passengers,  such  a 
system  would  be  of  great  use  for  the  mails.  The 


HIGH  SPEED  INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  265 

transportation  of  freight  other  than  the  small  bag- 
gage of  the  passegers  can  hardly  be  considered,  as 
the  cost  per  pound  would  ncessarily  be  too  great  for 
any  but  very  exceptional  cases ;  even  for  heavy  bag- 
gage it  would  hardly  pay. 

The  two  generating  stations  are  intended  to  be  in 
the  cities  Banhid  and  Zurndorf,  which  are  about  60 
kilometres  from  Budapest  and  Vienna  respect- 
ively. From  there  currents  of  10,000  volts  are  to  be 
sent  along  the  whole  line  on  poles,  from  which  wires 
branch  off  to  secondary  stations  all  along  the  roads, 
which  are  at  the  same  time  signaling  stations.  In 
these  secondary  stations  this  high  tension  alter- 
nating current  is  transformed  into  one  of  lower  ten- 
sion or  by  means  of  one  of  our  transformers  into  a 
continuous  current.  It  will  depend  entirely  on  the 
results  of  some  experiments  with  the  motors  for  the 
cars  which  of  these  two  currents  will  have  the 
preference. 

Construction  of  the  Car. — The  car  was  constructed 
in  the  car  factory  of  Ganz  &  Co.,  of  Budapest.  It 
contains  40  seats  for  passengers,  two  toilet  rooms, 
and  some  available  spaces  for  the  mail.  It  is  45 
metres  (148  feet)  long,  2.15  metres  (7  feet)  wide,  and 
2.20  metres  (7i  feet  )  high;  the  two  ends  are  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  parabola,  in  order  to  reduce  to  the 
smallest  possible  amount  the  air  resistance,  which 
at  such  speeds  absorbs  the  greatest  part  of  the  power. 

The  two  ends  of  the  cars  are  exclusively  for  the 
motors,  and  are  inaccessible  to  passengers.  They 
are  separated  from  the  main  part  by  partitions  with 
doors  and  windows.  They  must  also  be  separated 
from  the  engineer's  stand,  on  account  of  the  very 


266      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

violent  currents  of  air  which  are  generated  in  this 
space.  Each  of  the  motor  rooms  represents  a  sepa- 
rate truck. 

The  framework  of  the  car  is  a  system  of  beams 
which  rest  on  the  two  motor  trucks,  and  in  the  body 
of  the  car  form  a  sort  of  truss  bridge,  with  cross 
braces  at  every  1.5  metres.  The  bridge  construction 
adapts  itself  best  to  the  conditions.  The  body  of  the 
car  rests  on  the  two  pivoted  trucks,  and  is  supported 
by  16  pairs  of  evolute  springs,  which  are  held  in 
cast  steel  telescopic  cases.  The  support  is  such  that 
both  trucks  can  turn,  corresponding  to  a  curve  of 
1,000  metres  radius;  the  side  motion  of  these  cases 
inside  of  the  rails  is  in  that  case  6  millimetres. 

Each  truck  has  two  axles,  and  each  axle  has  its 
motor,  making  therefore  four  motors  to  a  car.  The 
magnets  are  secured  to  the  frame  of  the  truck  and 
the  armatures  are  directly  on  the  axles.  The  driv- 
ing wheels  (all  of  the  four  pairs  of  wheels  of  a  car 
are  drivers)  were  made  as  large  as  possible,  and 
have  two  flanges,  the  outside  one  being  merely  for 
safety  sake  against  derailing,  and  is  5  millimetres 
distant  from  the  edge  of  the  rail.  The  inner  flanges 
also  have  5  millimetres'  clearance,  to  allow  for  the 
heating  and  the  expansion  of  the  axles.  The  wheels 
are  made  of  two  solid  conical  discs,  secured  on  the 
outside  edge  to  the  tires  in  such  a  way  tha.t  the  tire 
is  readily  replaceable.  On  account  of  the  great 
strain  on  the  tires  they  must  be  very  carefully  made. 
The  bearings  are  of  special  importance;  the  pres- 
sure on  the  wheel  being  nearly  7,500  kilogrammes, 
and  the  speed  600  revolutions,  an  entirely  new  con- 
struction was  chosen.  The  bearing  boxes  are  solid, 


HIGH    SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  26? 

notwithstanding  the  attending  disadvantages.  In 
the  exact  middle  of  each  truck  there  are  two 
contact  wheels,  which  run  on  separate  rails,  carry- 
ing the  current.  These  wheels  are  flanged  so  as  to 
be  guided  by  the  rail ;  it  is  very  important  that  they 
be  exactly  in  the  centre  and  that  their  axial  motion 
be  as  little  as  possible.  As  the  currents  are  neces- 
sarily quite  great,  the  nature  of  these  contacts  is  a 
very  important  matter.  The  contact  wheels  must 
have  a  large  diameter  in  order  not  to  have  too  great 
a  speed  of  revolution  which  would  introduce  diffi- 
culties at  the  hearings;  they  must  furthermore  be 
light,  so  as  to  follow  any  motions  readily,  and  must 
rest  on  the  rails  with  some  pressure.  We  have  made 
them  similarly  to  the  driving  wheels,  of  two  steel 
discs  secured  together,  holding  a  readily  replaceable 
tire  of  bronze.  The  three  bearings  of  each  of  these 
contact  wheels  are  secured  to  the  truck  by  means 
of  three  pivoted  arms  and  pressed  on  to  the  contact 
rail  by  means  of  three  vertical  springs.  The  current 
is  taken  off  of  these  wheels  by  means  of  massive 
copper  blocks  which  rest  against  the  wheels.  Their 
shafts  are  made  of  two  parts,  and  insulated  in  such 
a  way  that  neither  the  shaft  nor  the  bearings  carry 
current.  The  contact  wheels  and  electric  motors 
are  accessible  from  a  narrow  bridge  which  runs  the 
whole  length  of  the  motor  room  above  the  axles. 

The  braking  mechanism  must  be  particularly 
well  designed,  as  it  is  of  vital  importance  for 
safety's  sake,  with  a  speed  of  250  kilometres  an 
hour,  to  absorb  or  destroy  a  momentum  represent- 
ing 60  tons  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  and  thereby 
to  stop  the  car.  The  air  friction  itself  acts  as  a 


268     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

powerful  brake,  being  equal  to  about  200  horse- 
power. On  the  level  all  other  resistances  are  very 
small  as  compared  to  that  of  the  air.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  first  braking  action  on  stopping 
the  current  will  be  that  of  the  air.  But  this  applies 
only  to  the  first  moments,  as  its  action  diminishes 
very  rapidly  as  the  speed  becomes  less.  A  second 
powerful  braking  action  may  be  produced  by  con- 
necting the  terminals  of  the  motor  to  a  resistance, 
which  may  be  put  under  the  bottom  of  the  car,  and 
to  let  the  motor  act  as  a  generator.  It  is  immaterial, 
as  far  as  the  necessary  switching  arrangements  are 
concerned,  whether  continuous  or  alternating  cur- 
rents are  used,  and  no  difficulties  present  themselves. 
As  the  speed  diminishes  to  about  a  half,  the  motors 
which  were  originally  in  parallel  should  be  capable 
of  being  connected  two  in  series  and  two  in  paral- 
lel, and  at,  say,  one-quarter  speed  all  four  in  series. 

This  braking  action,  although  effective,  is  not  suf- 
ciently  powerful  for  speeds  below  30  kilometres  per 
hour  (about  18  miles).  There  must  be  an  additional 
mechanical  brake,  for  which  we  prefer  the  usual 
Westinghouse  air  brake,  as  the  safest  and  quickest. 
For  this  purpose  there  are  two  air  chambers  and 
eight  cylinders  on  the  car.  The  dimensions,  capac- 
ity, and  pressure  from  these  are  quite  ample,  and 
the  loss  of  pressure  can  be  replaced  either  by  hand 
or  by  means  of  a  small  electric  motor.  The  two 
reservoirs  are  made  of  4-inch  pipes,  each  30  metres 
(96  feet)  long. 

The  car  is  equipped  with  air  buffers,  the  heat  gen- 
erated by  their  action  being:  used  to  generate  steam, 
which  is  then  allowed  to  escape.  The  cars  further- 


HIGH    SPEED   INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  269 

more  have  couplings,  so  that  a  disabled  car  could 
be  drawn  by  another.  The  headlight  for  the  night 
must  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  directed.  The 
illumination  of  this  must  be  so  powerful  that  any 
obstacle,  as  for  instance  a  fallen  tree,  can  be  seen 
at  a  sufficient  distance  to  enable  the  car  to  be 
stopped.  This  distance  will  be  about  2  kilometres  (1£ 
miles) ;  the  headlight  reflectors  will,  therefore,  have 
to  enable  one  to  see  even  in  bad  weather  at  this  dis- 
tance. 

The  illumination  of  the  car  is  to  be  effected  by 
means  of  incandescent  lamps  supplied  from  the 
main  current,  through  a  special  apparatus  which 
equalizes  the  variable  potential.  The  heating  is  by 
means  of  two  coal  stoves,  which  may  be  placed 
between  the  two  walls.  The  windows  have  double 
panes  of  glass,  and  are  arranged  so  that  they  can- 
not be  opened.  Ventilation  is  effected  by  suitable 
pipes  on  the  roof  of  the  car. 

Construction  of  the  Road.— In  the  above  we  have 
endeavored  to  give  the  general  principles  of  our 
projected  system  which  form  the  basis  on  which  to 
work,  namely,  the  mode  and  the  means  for  a  sys- 
tem of  rapid  transit.  We  will  now  consider  the  con- 
ditions which  are  thereby  necessitated  concerning 
the  construction  of  the  road  itself. 

As  already  explained,  the  grades  at  such  a  speed 
of  200  kilometres  do  not  offer  as  many  difficulties  as 
the  curves.  In  order  to  mount  grades  with  greater 
speed  requires  merely  a  greater  power,  and  it  can 
always  be  so  arranged  that  this  increase  of  power 
can  be  obtained  at  the  proper  places.  The  speed  is 
limited  on  the  curves,  for  which  reason  only  curves 


270      RECENT     PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

of  large  radius  can  be  used.  For  that  part  of  the 
road  over  which  cars  are  to  be  run  at  full  speed  we 
have  limited  ourselves  to  curves  of  not  less  than 
3,000  meters  radius  (9, 840)  feet;  where  the  nature  of 
the  land  does  not  permit  this  the  speed  will  have  to 
be  diminished.  The  side  pressure  on  the  curves  is  to 
be  avoided  entirely  by  raising  the-  outside  rail.  By 
this  we  mean,  of  course,  that  the  difference  in  height 
of  the  two  rails  is  obtained  partly  (one-half)  by  a 
lowering  of  the  inside  rail  and  partly  (one-half)  by 
raising  the  outside  rail.  The  difference  in  the 
heights  of  the  two  rails  for  a  speed  of  200  kilo- 
metres and  a  curve  of  3,000  metres  radius  is  148  mil- 
limetres (5f  inches),  at  which  the  resultant  of  the 
centrifugal  force  and  the  weight  is  normal  to  the 
rail.  The  greater  this  difference,  the  more  difficult 
will  be  the  passage  from  a  straight  stretch  to  a 
curve.  It  will  not  be  possible  to  make  this  differ- 
ence greater  than  180  millimetres  (74  inches)  with- 
out endangering  the  safety  of  the  passengers  at 
the  curves.  In  laying  out  the  road  the  curves  and 
the  greatest  possible  speed  will  have  to  be  consid- 
ered for  each  case,  taking  into  account  the  grade, 
direction,  etc.,  and  the  rise  of  the  outer  rail  deter- 
mined from  this. 

The  great  attention  which  has  to  be  given  to  the 
curves,  in  laying  out  the  road  to  comply  with  the 
contour  of  the  land,  increases  the  difficulties  greatly, 
and  for  this  reason  one  should  not  be  too  particular 
to  avoid  grades.  In  our  projected  road  from  Vienna 
to  Budapest,  we  have  not  hesitated  to  use  grades 
of  10  per  cent.,  and  we  assume  that  the  speed  on 
these  grades  shall  not  be  less  than  200  kilometres 


HIGH   SPEED    INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  271 

(124  miles);  the  power,  however,  will  be  twice  as 
great  as  for  the  same  speed  on  the  level.  Steeper 
grades  than  10  per  cent,  would  increase  the  weights 
of  the  more  powerful  motors  to  an  unfavorable 
degree,  and  they  are,  therefore,  to  be  avoided  if 
possible ;  if  they  cannot  be  avoided  the  speed  on 
these  grades  will  simply  have  to  be  reduced. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  average 
speed  in  hilly  and  mountainous  districts  will  not  be 
more  than  200  kilometres  (124  miles)  per  hour ;  on 
down  grades  and  on  the  level  the  time  lost  on  the 
curves  and  up  grades  is  made  up  by  a  maximum 
speed  of  250  kilometres  (155  miles). 

Having  now  considered  the  laying  out  of  the  road 
we  next  take  up  the  construction  of  the  road  itself, 
which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the 
cars.  We  are,  above  all,  safe  against  derailing,  on 
account  of  the  large  diameter  of  the  drivers  and  the 
nature  of  the  construction  of  the  cars,  whose  pivoted 
trucks  can  be  guided  so  much  better  (having  but 
five  millimetres  or  three-sixteenth  inch  play)  than  is 
possible  with  the  usual  rigid  shafts.*  Furthermore, 
the  great  length  of  the  car  is  the  best  means  for 
preventing  the  lateral  motions  of  the  car,  and  there- 
by avoiding  the  chief  cause  of  derailing.  A  second 
safeguard  is  secured  in  the  second  flange  on  the 
drivers,  both  of  which  are  furthermore  made  50  mil- 
limetres (two  inches)  high.  Finally,  to  guide  the 
car  in  case  the  wheels  should  leave  the  rails,  we 
have  provided  that  the  framework  of  the  car  extend 
down  outside  of  and  below  the  top  of  the  rail. 

The  usual  railroad  rars  In  Europe  have  no  pivoted  trucks,  being  built 
more  like  the  American  horse  curs.— ED. 


272      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

Besides  this,  the  body  of  the  car  is  carried  so  low 
that  the  distance  to  the  current-carrying  rails  is 
only  100  millimetres  (four  inches),  and  therefore  in 
case  of  derailing  these  rails  would  still  act  as  a  sort 
of  guide  and  support  for  the  car. 

But  the  best  protection  against  derailing  is  the 
particular  roadbed  and  rails  which  we  have  chosen. 
The  latter  is  a  180-millimetre  (7i  inch)  high  Vignol 
rail,  weighing  50  kilogrammes  per  metre  (about  33| 
pounds  per  foot),  which  is  screwed  down  to  cast- 
steel  sleepers  by  cast-steel  supports  on  both  sides  of 
the  rail.  The  latter  have  their  surfaces  planed  and 
grooved  so  a.s  to  assure  the  proper  width  of  gauge 
beyond  question.  They  are  placed  at  distances  of  1 
metre  (3£)  feet  apart,  and  are  bolted  down  to  a  con- 
tinuous foundation  of  concrete.  The  rails  are  sup- 
ported along  their  whole  length  on  the  foundation, 
so  that  in  case  of  a  rail  breaking  it  is  still  held  in 
place.  The  current  rails  are  constructed  as  a  sort  of 
air  line,  supported  on  insulators  about  500  milli- 
metres (20  inches)  from  the  ground,  by  means  of 
cast-iron  carriers  held  in  supports  cast  for  them  in 
the  steel  sleepers.  The  whole  roadbed  must  be  con- 
structed with  the  utmost  care  and  precision  even  in 
the  minutest  details,  and  the  rails  must  be  screwed 
to  the  foundation.  Such  a  construction,  on  a  contin- 
uous foundation,  increases  the  cost  of  the  road  very 
greatly,  but  we  consider  this  as  unavoidable,  on 
account  of  the  great  necessity  to  guard  against  all 
sources  of  danger.  It  is  above  all  the  weight  and 
stability  of  the  roadbed  which  insures  safety.  It  is 
out  of  the  question  to  make  the  bed  of  loose  stones, 
as  this  is  altogether  too  elastic.  Almost  all  the  cases 


HIGH    SPEED   INTERURBAN   RAILROADS.  273 

of  derailment  can  be  traced  back  to  changes  in  the 
bedding ;  most  of  the  accidents  which  have  occurred 
can  be  traced  to  unequal  settling  of  the  roadbed, 
and  similar  causes.  In  our  system  there  is  further- 
more another  reason  for  having  a  very  heavy,  mas- 
sive roadbed ;  the  shock  or  blow  which  such  a  heavy 
car  exerts  at  that  great  speed  must  be  met  by  some 
correspondingly  heavy  and  massive  body,  and  only 
then  will  the  roadbed  stand  the  strains  without 
danger.  The  car  must  roll  perfectly  quietly  on  its 
absolutely  solid  foundations. 

The  desired  rigidity  is  secured  only  when  the  rails 
and  sleepers  are  actually  bolted  to  the  foundation. 
This  foundation  may  be  made  of  two  continuous 
underground  walls  of  masonry ;  where  the  road  has 
been  filled  in,  these  walls  must  be  made  much 
stronger  than  in  cuts  or  where  they  are  built  in  the 
natural  ground.  For  that  reason  there  should  be  no 
high  embankments,  as  they  keep  on  settling  even 
after  several  years,  and  therefore  do  not  offer  a 
sufficiently  secure  foundation.  For  bridges  the  con- 
ditions of  the  road  are  more  favorable  than  for 
steam  roads,  as  it  is  necessary  to  consider  only  the 
maximum  weight  of  two  cars  passing  each  other, 
say  about  120  tons;  the  rigidity  must,  however,  be 
considered  on  account  of  the  violent  action,  almost 
like  a  blow,  which  such  a  rapidly  moving  car 
exerts.  Stone  viaducts  will  be  found  to  be  necessary 
much  more  frequently  than  for  steam  railroads, 
partly  because,  as  we  have  mentioned,  high  embank- 
ments cannot  be  relied  upon  as  sufficiently  safe; 
partly,  also,  because  the  former  will  be  cheaper 
than  the  latter.  The  reasons  for  this  are,  that  for 


274:     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

such  a  system  of  single  cars  instead  of  trains,  long- 
roads  must  unquestionably  be  built  with  double 
tracks,  as  turn-outs  are  out  of  the  question,  partly 
because  of  the  loss  of  time,  which  is  just  that  which 
our  system  is  intended  to  avoid  at  all  costs,  and 
partly  because  switches  would  have  to  be  traversed 
at  great  speeds,  which  would  heighten  the  source  of 
danger  very  greatly.  Anything  but  a  double  track 
road  is  therefore  entirely  out  of  the  question,  except 
on  very  short  roads  on  which  there  is  only  one  car 
at  a  time.  The  two  tracks  must  be  at  least  10  metres 
(33  feet)  apart,  on  account  of  the  intense  air  cur- 
rents and  air  friction,  the  shock  from  which  might 
become  a  great  source  of  danger  at  a  smaller  dis- 
tance than  this.  With  a  distance  between  the  rails 
of  10  metres,  a  high  embankment  would  become  so 
very  expensive  that  its  cost  would  be  greater  than 
that  of  two  independent  parallel  viaducts  10  metres 
apart.  We  proposed  for  the  latter  to  use  the  best 
construction  of  cement  and  iron  on  piers  with  spans 
of  12-15  metres  (40-50  feet),  and  a  width  of  2-j-  metres 
(8i  feet).  We  have  found  from  calculations  that 
for  the  line  from  Vienna  to  Budapest  such  viaducts 
are  not  more  expensive  than  embankments  when 
the  height  of  the  track  above  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  is  6  metres  (19|  feet),  even  when  the 
wide  space  between  the  two  tracks  is  not  filled  in. 

The  road,  of  course,  must  be  made  inaccessible  to 
all  pedestrians  except  the  railroad  employes. 
Grade  crossings  are  out  of  the  question.  To  save 
the  trouble  of  clearing  away  the  snow,  we  propose 
to  elevate  the  top  of  the  foundation  of  the  roadbed 
500  millimetres  above  the  lower  level  of  the  road, 


HIGH   SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  275 

in  order  that  the  snow  may  be  partly,  at  least,  blown 
away  by  the  intense  current  of  air  accompanying 
each  car. 

As  already  mentioned,  great  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  signaling.  As  it  may  be  necessary  that 
the  signaling  station  has  to  stop  a  car  even  when 
the  locomotive  engineer  has  failed  to  see  the  signal, 
all  signaling  arrangements  must  be  so  designed  that 
with  each  signal  the  current  supplied  to  the  rails 
must  be  correspondingly  turned  off  or  on  by  the 
signaling  station. 

To  accomplish  this  we  lay  down  the  following 
conditions : 

1.  Along  the  whole  line  signaling  stations  must 
be  erected,  which  for  a  double  track  road  must  not 
be  at  a  greater  distance  apart  than  two  kilometres 
(li  miles). 

2.  The  rails  carrying  the  currents  for  each  section 
must  be  cut  and  insulated  from  those  of  the  next 
section ;  the  leads  supplying  these  sections  at  these 
places  must  pass  through  a  controlling  and  regula- 
ting device. 

i  3.  This  device  must  show  when  the  current  is 
greater  than  the  normal,  by  reason  of  two  succes- 
sive cars  being  closer  together  than  the  normal  dis- 
tance, and  it  must  furthermore  diminish  the  current 
for  the  second  car,  so  as  to  compel  it  to  go  slower 
until  the  distance  between  it  and  the  one  ahead  is 
again  normal. 

4.  Every   signaling   station   must  be   capable   of 
sending  its  signals  to  the  two  neighboring  stations. 

5.  Every  signal  should  be  such  that  the  engineer 
can  readily  see  it. 


276      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

6.  The  signals  must  be  quite  long,  in  order  that  lio 
may  see  the  colors  or  lights  as  stripes  or  bands. 

We  propose  to  signal  with  three  bands,  having 
the  following  significance:* 

Three  bands,  "stop;"  two  bands,  speed  of  50  kilo- 
metres; one  band,  speed  of  100  kilometres;  no 
bands,  full  speed. 

7.  Besides  the  above  there  should  be  signals  for 
covering   stations,  and   a  telephone  connection  be- 
tween the  stations. 

Power  Required. — The  power  required  for  propel- 
ling a  car  of  about  60  tons,  and  having  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  nearly  5  square  metres  (about  50  square  feet), 
is  very  considerable,  and  it  is  evident  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  power  is  required  to  overcome 
the  resistance  of  the  air.  In  the  absence  of  reliable 
empirical  data  regarding  the  various  resistances 
encountered  by  a  railroad  train,  we  have  taken  up 
each  of  them  in  series,  as  far  as  concerns  the  scope 
and  object  of  the  present  project,  and  give  the 
results  here  as  follows : 

The  air  resistance  was  determined  lately  by  Crosby 
(see  The  Electrical  World,  1890,  vol.  XV.,  p.  346) 
to  obtain  a  safe  basis  for  calculating  the  projected 
rapid  transit  road  from  New  York  to  Chicago.  He 
obtained  figures  for  the  moving  of  differently  shaped 
bodies  in  air,  which  are  considerably  smaller  than 
those  of  the  formulae  heretofore  used. 

As  Crosby's  experiments  were  made  with  great 
care,  we  can  unhesitatingly  use  his  empirical  for- 

*  We  would  suggest  that  it  would  be  more  rational  to  reverse  this  set  of 
signals  so  that  if  the  engineer  fail  to  see  the  signal,  or  if  one  or  more  fail  to 
act,  it  would  cause  him  to  stop  or  diminish  his  speed  rather  than  to  increase 
itt  as  he  would  with  the  above  arrangement.—  Ei>. 


HIGH  SPEED   INTERURBAN  RAILROADS.  2tt 

mulae  for  the  resistance  of  air  at  the  face  of  the  car, 
namely : 

P=  0.1441  V 

in  which  P  is  in  pounds  per  square  foot-  and  F  the 
velocity  in  miles ;  and 

P  +  cos.  0 

T)  

2 
for  the  pressure  against  surfaces  moved  at  an  angle. 

According  to  these  formulae  one  can  assume  that 
the  air  resistance  of  a  well-constructed  car  for  200 
kilometres,  average  speed  will  not  exceed  250  horse- 
power. If  steep  grades  (10  per  cent.)  are  to  be 
ascended  at  this  speed,  it  will  require  for  a  car 
weighing  60  tons  nearly  450  horse-power. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  resistance  of  curves, 
the  air  resistance  on  the  lateral  surfaces,  the  rolling 
friction,  bearing  friction,  loss  of  power  by  lateral 
oscillations,  etc.,  which,  however,  cannot  be  calcu- 
lated for  want  of  experimental  data,  but  which  are 
no  doubt  quite  small  as  compared  to  the  others,  and 
may,  therefore,  be  safely  estimated  at  100  horse- 
power. 

The  maximum  power  required  for  a  car  is  accord- 
ing to  this  800  horse-power,  and  every  car  would, 
therefore,  have  four  motors  of  200  effective  horse- 
power each.  Each  car  will,  therefore,  require  in 
favorable  weather  about  260,000  watts  when  the- 
road  is  level,  and  up  to  600,000  watts  in  ascending 
grades. 

The  voltage  of  the  working  current  could  not  be 
chosen  higher  than  1,000  volts,  as  interruptions  and 
complications  are  too  apt  to  be  caused  by  poor  insu- 


2?8      RECENT   iPROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

lation,  etc.,  at  higher  voltages  than  this.  Besides, 
all  parts  of  the  circuit  on  the  car  should  be  capable 
of  being  handled  without  danger  to  life. 

The  amount  to  be  transmitted  to  the  moving  car 
must  therefore  be  from  260-600  amperes,  which  re- 
quires very  good  contact  surfaces. 

We  may  assume  that  the  above  problem  may  be 
considered  solved,  as  far  as  the  railroad  engineering 
is  concerned.  There  remains  to  be  considered  what 
the  best  means  are  for  the  electrical  transmission  of 
the  power. 

We  reserve  this  question,  however,  for  our  recon- 
sideration in  view  of  the  results  which  are  to  be 
obtained  from  some  experiments  which  we  are  at 
present  making  with  a  new  form  of  motor  specially 
designed  for  railroad  purposes. 


To  the  above  paper  the  following  additional  fads 
taken  from  other  sources  may  be  added:  The  gauge 
of  this  proposed  road  is  to  be  1.45  metres  (4  feet  Oj- 
inches)  the  same  as  that  used  in  Europe  at  present. 
The  cost  of  such  road  is  estimated  to  be  about  two 
and  a  half  times  that  of  an  ordinary  railroad.  The 
car  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  cigar  pointed  at  both 
ends.  The  seats  are  like  those  in  the  usual  horse  cars ; 
the  entrances  are  at  side  doors  where  the  car  proper 
joins  the  motor  rooms.  The  proposed  speed  is  about 
double  that  of  a  train  at  present  running  regularly 
between  Brighton  and  London,  on  a  6-foot  gauge. 
The  cost  of  this  road  is  estimated  at  from  $16,000,000 
to  $20,000,000.  The  total  distance  is  250  kilometres 
(156  miles).  On  the  present  steam  road  it  takes  an 
express  train  four  and  a  half  hours.  In  connection 


MISCELLANEOUS  SYSTEMS.  279 

\vith  tliis  project  Prof.  Elihu  Thomson  is  stated  to 
have  given  the  opinion  that  the  highest  attainable 
speed  might  reach  300  kilometers  (186  miles)  an 
hour,  or  3.1  miles  a  minute. — ED. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MISCELLANEOUS   SYSTEMS. 

Patton  Self-Contained  System. — Quite  a  departure 
from  the  usual  plan  is  made  in  this  system,  as  it 
does  away  with  trolleys,  conduits,  power  stations, 
etc.  It  consists  briefly  of  a  car  equipped  with  a 
small  gas  engine,  a  dynamo,  accumulators,  and  a 
motor.  The  source  of  power  is  carried  in  the  form 
of  gasoline.  Though  it  may  seem  cumbersome,  it 
nevertheless  is  interesting  as  a  radical  departure, 
and  although  it  hardly  looks  as  if  it  would  replace 
the  more  usual  systems,  it  nevertheless  has  a  num- 
ber of  points  in  its  favor. 

The  experimental  car  which  has  been  in  daily  ser- 
vice at  Pullman,  111.,  is  said  to  have  attained  a  speed 
of  11  miles  an  hour  while  drawing  a  loaded  trailer. 
The  apparatus  used  consists  of  a  vertical  10  horse- 
power gasoline  engine,  a  10  horse-power  compound 
wound  generator  driven  by  friction,  a  battery  of 
100  accumulators  and  a  15  horse-power  single  reduc- 
tion motor  suspended  from  the  front  axle.  The  cells 
are  placed  under  the  seats  that  extend  across  the 
car,  and  are  seldom  if  ever  removed  from  their  posi- 
tion. The  gas  engine  and  generator  occupy  a  space 
the  width  of  the  car  by  44  inches  in  length,  rela- 


280     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

tively  the  seating  capacity  of  eight  passengers 
where  two  seats  extend  across  the  car.  The  base  of 
the  engine  is  supported  on  an  iron  fi  ame  placed  six 
inches  above  the  rails ;  the  muffler  extends  length- 
wise of  the  car.  The  engine  and  generator  weigh 
about  1,500  pounds,  and  the  section  of  the  car  con- 
taining them  is  inclosed  to  the  ceiling.  The  gasoline 
is  stored  in  a  tank  fastened  to  the  ceiling  and  is  fed 
by  gravity  to  the  burner  in  the  engine  through  flex- 
ible rubber  tubes,  the  rate  of  consumption  being 
one  and  a  half  gallons  an  hour,  irrespective  of  the 
load,  the  fluid  costing  six  cents  a  gallon.  Thus,  to  run 
continuously  for  18  hours  would  require  a  tank  capa- 
city of  27  gallons,  or  a  tank  holding  14  gallons  to  be 
filled  twice  a  day.  As  the  gasoline  is  automatically 
fed  to  the  engine  no  special  attention  is  required, 
and  only  a  car  operator  and  a  conductor  are 
employed,  as  the  engine  continues  in  operation 
throughout  the  day,  whether  the  car  is  in  motion  or 
not,  and  is  only  stopped  when  the  car  is  withdrawn 
from  service. 

When  the  engine  is  in  operation  the  current  gen- 
erated by  the  dynamo  passes  to  the  accumulators  if 
the  car  is  standing,  but  when  the  car  is  in  motion 
the  current  passes  to  the  motor,  both  generator  and 
battery  being  placed  in  multiple  with  the  motor. 
The  movement  of  a  simple  switch  handle  controls  a 
pole  changer,  and  also  cuts  in  or  out  the  necessary 
resistance  employed.  On  a  level  track  the  motor  is 
supplied  with  current  only  from  the  generator,  but 
on  rounding  a  sharp  curve  or  ascending  a  heavy 
grade,  where  the  potential  of  the  generator  falls  to 
that  of  the  cells,  the  latter  are  automatically  placed 


MISCELLANEOUS  SYSTEMS.  $81 

in  circuit  and  assist  in  supplying  the  necessary 
quantity  of  current  to  enable  the  motor  to  perform 
its  work.  Thus  on  an  ordinary  track  the  cells  would 
only  be  in  service  about  one-sixth  of  the  time  the 
car  was  on  duty,  and  there  would  always  be  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  current  in  the  cells  to  run  the  car 
for  two  hours  or  more  independent  of  engine  and 
generator. 

The  field  in  which  this  motor  car  can  compete  is 
in  the  service  in  the  small  towns,  where  the  cars 
run  "at  will;"  in  the  smaller  cities,  where  short 
competing  lines  practically  prohibit  the  outlay  for 
cable  systems  or  electric  power  house  and  overhead 
equipments;  and  in  the  larger  cities,  where  the 
trolley  will  not  be  tolerated. 

A  Novel  Electric  Railway  for  the  World's  Fair. — 
This  novel  railway  will  differ  from  ordinary  rail- 
ways, in  that  the  passengers  are  transported  on  a 
movable  sidewalk  instead  of  by  cars  of  the  ordinary 
type.  This  sidewalk  is  to  be  constructed  on  an  ele- 
vated structure  25  feet  high  and  900  feet  long,  in  the 
form  of  an  ellipse,  and  is  to  consist  of  75  cars,  each 
12  feet  long,  connected  together,  making  one  solid 
train.  There  are  to  be  constructed  two  parallel  side- 
walks, one  running  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  an  hour, 
the  other  at  four,  both  walks  moving  in  the  same 
direction.  The  passengers  can  step  from  the  station- 
ary walk  to  the  one  which  moves  at  the  rate  of  two 
miles  an  hour,  and  if  it  is  desired  to  move  at  a 
greater  speed  they  can  step  from  this  walk  to  the  one 
running  at  four  miles  an  hour.  The  passengers  can 
safely  walk  upon  either  of  the  movable  sidewalks 
while  in  motion  if  desired.  The  carrying  capacity 


2&2      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

is  intended  to  be  30,000  passengers  per  hour.  Three 
of  the  75  cars  are  to  be  equipped  with  two  15  horse- 
power Thomson-Houston  railway  motors,  each 
mounted  upon  trucks  with  wheels  18  inches  in  diam- 
eter. As  the  car  platform,  or  sidewalk,  is  arranged 
it  is  perfectly  level  with  the  stationary  walk,  allow- 
ing the  trolley  wire  to  be  placed  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  platform,  and  the  current  taken  there- 
from by  means  of  small  trolleys  attached  beneath 
the  car  floors.  The  operation  of  this  train  of  cars 
will  be  arranged  in  a  novel  manner,  doing  away 
with  the  use  of  motor  men,  the  entire  train  being 
controlled  and  operated  by  one  man.  There  will  be 
constructed  at  a  central  point,  at  one  side  of  the 
track,  a  controlling  station,  which  will  contain  a 
main  switch,  reversing  switch,  automatic  circuit 
breaker,  lightning  arrester,  ampere  meter,  and  rhe- 
ostats, all  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  operated  by 
the  attendant  from  that  point,  who  will  have  the 
train  under  perfect  control. 

Parcel  Exchange  System. — A  London  corre- 
spondent gives  the  following  description  of  a 
parcel  exchange  system  devised  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Ben- 
nett, of  London.  In  many  of  the  large  towns  of 
England,  the  vehicular  traffic  is  so  heavy  that  in 
order  to  avoid  absolute  blocking  of  the  thoroughfares 
the  collection  or  delivery  of  goods  is  forbidden  in  cer- 
tain localities  during  business  hours.  The  results  of 
this  restriction  are  that  trade  suffers,  and  ware- 
houses have  to  be  made  of  larger  capacity  than 
would  be  necessary  if  the  free  receipt  and  dispatch 
ot  goods  were  permitted.  With  a  view  to  overcome 
this  difficulty,  and  to  allow  of  comparatively  small 


MISCELLANEOUS  SYSTEMS.  283 

packages  being  handled  at  all  times,  this  scheme 
was  worked  out,  founded  upon  the  "  telephone  ex- 
change" principle,  by  which  parcels  could  be  readily 
interchanged  between  any  number  of  buildings,  no 
matter  how  widely  far  apart  they  may  be  situated. 
The  following  is  a  brief  resume : 

It  is  proposed  to  effect  this  system  of  interchang- 
ing by  the  establishment  of  a  number  of  miniature 
underground  electric  railways,  radiating  from  a 
central  station,  and  having  branch  lines  or  sidings 
into  all  the  buildings  to  be  served.  According  to 
this  plan,  the  railways  would  be  laid  in  tubes  of  a 
rectangular  section,  and  would  be  so  arranged  that 
the  down  track  would  occupy  the  lower  portion, 
and  the  up  track  the  upper  portion  of  the  tube.  The 
tubes  would  be  made  sufficiently  large — say  two  feet 
wide  by  three  feet  high — to  allow  a  man  to  creep 
through  for  examination  ^nd  repairs,  and  in  order 
to  afford  space  for  this  the  rails  would  be  laid,  not 
on  cross  sleepers  or  ties,  but  on  brackets  fastened  to 
the  walls  of  the  tube.  Trucks  actuated  by  electro- 
motors would  run  on  the  rails,  the  current  being 
obtained  either  from  one  of  the  latter  or  from  a 
separate  conductor  laid  parallel  with  the  track.  On 
the  down  journey  the  current  would  be  collected  by 
a  kind  of  shoe  pressing  against  the  under  side  of 
this  conductor,  and  on  the  up  journey  by  a  second 
shoe  or  collector.  Separate  shoes  are,  however,  pro- 
vided and  connected  with  the  motor  so  that  a  truck 
could  not  travel  in  the  wrong  direction.  The  size  of 
tube  suggested  would  permit  of  trucks  20  inches 
wide  by  14  inches  deep  being  used,  and  their  length 
might  be  considerable,  but  it  would  be  regulated  by 


284     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

the  radius  of  the  curves.  Each  train  would  consist  of 
a  motor  truck,  and  one,  or  perhaps  two  or  three,  trail- 
ers or  other  trucks.  The  generating  and  operating 
station  would  be  established  in  a  suitable  locality ; 
in  a  large  town  there  might  be  several.  The  station 
would  contain  the  engines,  boilers,  and  dynamos, 
and  might  also  be  used  as  an  electric  light  station. 
Here  would  be  arranged  various  turntables  for  the 
interchange  of  trains  between  the  tubes,  while 
sidings  would  be  provided  for  empty  trucks. 

Regarding  the  delivery  of  goods,  connection  with 
the  premises  of  subscribers  would  be  made  by  short 
spurs  or  sidings  diverging  from  the  nearest  main 
tube.  A.t  the  junction  of  the  branches  with  the  main 
track,  switches  similar  to  ordinary  railway  switches 
would  be  placed  and  controlled  by  means  of  electro- 
magnets by  the  operator  at  the  central  station. 
Various  methods  for  finding  and  working  any 
switch  with  certainty  and  rapidity  are  proposed, 
and  also  for  ascertaining  that  the  switch  has  been 
put  over  or  vice  versa.  The  sidings  into  subscribers' 
buildings  would  consist  of  down  and  up  tracks,  but 
where  space  is  available  they  would  be  caused  to 
diverge  after  entering  the  building  and  ultimately 
meet  on  one  track,  so  that  trains  might  be  shifted 
from  the  down  to  the  up  track  without  lifting  them 
off  the  rails.  Various  arrangements  are  provided  for 
signaling  and  for  informing  the  operator  or  operators 
of  the  progress  or  position  of  the  trains,  and  for  the 
return  of  loaded  or  empty  trucks  from  subscribers' 
sidings  or  on  the  main  up  line.  The  starting  levers 
could  be  interlocked  with  the  levers  controlling  the 
siding  switches,  so  that  a  following  train  could  not 


MISCELLANEOUS   SYSTEMS.  285 

leave  until  the  switch  for  the  preceding  one  had 
been  restored  to  its  normal  position. 

The  inventor  claims  that  the  details  do  not  com- 
prise any  device  which  has  not  been  thoroughly 
tested  in  the  telegraph  and  signaling  department  of 
the  post  office  and  railway  companies,  or  in  con- 
nection with  electric  traction.  He  is  of  opinion 
that  the  system  of  electrical  parcel  exchange  as 
proposed  would  be  invaluable  to  the  various  post- 
offices,  and  to  parcel  receiving  and  great  dispatchers 
of  small  packages ;  buyers  could,  he  says,  telephone 
for  samples,  hotels  and  restaurants  could  telephone 
for  and  receive  in  a  few  minutes  supplies  they  may 
be  short  of,  etc.  As  a  parting  shot,  the  inventor 
gives  a  friend's  suggestion  that  a  mother  could  send 
hjer  baby  bodily  to  the  doctor  via  the  central  sta- 
tion, and  receive  it  back  with  "  a  bottle  of  medicine 
in  its  fist  and  a  mustard  leaf  on  its  chest." 

The  Electrical  Transportation  System  of  the  New 
England  Portelectric  Company. — This  system  con- 
sists in  general  of  a  small  projectile-like  car  oper- 
ated entirely  by  electrical  means  from  stationary 
stations.  A  very  good  description,  too  long  to  be 
reproduced  here,  in  the  form  of  a  full  report  by 
Franklin  L.  Pope,  will  be  found  in  The  Electrical 
World,  May  23,  1891,  p.  375.  Other  descriptions,  with 
illustrations,  will  be  found  in  the  same  journal  for 
May  4,  1889,and  October  18,  1890. 


286      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 

The  subject  of  dynamos  in  general  will  be  found 
in  a  separate  volume  of  this  series  on  that  subject. 
The  generators  and  motors  described  below  are 
limited  to  such  as  are  designated  and  constructed 
especially  for  railroad  service,  and  therefore  more 
properly  belong  under  this  heading  of  railways. 

Generators.— The  chief  feature  of  generators  for 
railways  in  which  they  differ  from  those  for  run- 
ning lights  is  that  they  must  be  able  to  stand  very 
much  rougher  usage  and  considerable  overloading 
for  short  periods.  They  must  therefore  be  designed 
on  different  lines  than  those  for  incandescent  light- 
ing. They  must  also  have  their  wires  more  carefully 
insulated  from  the  frame  of  the  machines,  because 
in  railway  service  one  pole  is  almost  invariably 
grounded,  which  adds  a  greater  strain  on  the  insu- 
lation, which  besides  this  is  subjected  to  500  volts 
instead  of  the  usual  110.  A  feature  worth  noticing 
is  that  most  of  the  new  railway  generators  are  made 
multipolar  and  many  of  them  use  carbon  brushes. 

Westinghouse  500  Horse-Power  (370  kilowatts)  Six- 
pole  Generator. — In  the  accompanying  illustration 
it  will  be  seen  that'  in  general  design  it  resembles 
somewhat  the  well-known  alternating  current 
dynamo  of  that  company.  There  is  the  same  c}din- 
drical  yoke  parting  along  a  horizontal  plane  through 
the  shaft,  and  the  same  arrangement  of  inwardly 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS  AND   TRUCKS. 


287 


288      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

pointing  pole  pieces.  It  is  claimed  to  be  the  largest 
American  built  dynamo.  The  125  and  250  horse- 
power machines  have  four  pole  pieces,  and  the  500 
horse-power  six  poles.  In  this  latter  machine  the 
shaft  has  a  bearing  outside  of  the  pulley,  which 
relieves  it  in  a  large  degree  from  the  bending  strain, 
and  adds  to  the  rigidity  of  the  armature.  The 
pole  pieces  are  built  up  of  thin  sheet-iron  plates 
bolted  together  and  cast  into  the  cylindrical  yoke. 
The  field  is  compound  wound,  the  shunt  and  series 
coils  being  wound  side  by  side  upon  metal  bobbins, 
which  are  then  slipped  over  the  pole  pieces,  and 
held  in  place  by  bolts.  The  bearings  are  self-oiling 
as  well  as  self-aligning,  and  a  great  amount  of 
bearing  surface  is  obtained  by  the  great  length  and 
large  diameter  of  the  journals.  The  armature  is  of 
the  Gramme  ring  type,  the  core  being  laminated  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  conductors  are  laid  under 
the  surfaces  of  the  armature  in  oval  perforations 
which  are  afterward  milled  into  deep  slots.  It  is 
stated  that  the  electrical  efficiency  of  these  genera- 
tors is  from  94  to  96  per  cent,  at  full  load.  They  are 
wound  for  500  volts,  but  they  can  be  worked  up  to 
550  or  even  600  volts  with  the  same  armature  speed, 
by  throwing  resistance  out  of  the  shunt  circuit  with 
the  hand  regulator.  The  action  of  the  series  coils  is 
such  as  to  cause  a  considerable  rise  in  voltage  as  the 
current  increases,  the  rise  in  voltage  being  suffi- 
cient to  make  up  for  any  ordinary  loss  or  "  drop"  in 
the  line.  The  number  of  sets  of  carbon  brushes  cor- 
responds to  the  number  of  pole  pieces,  and  the  alter- 
nate ones,  being  of  the  same  polarity,  are  connected 
together.  Each  individual  brush  has  its  own  spring, 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      289 

by  means  of  which  its  pressure  on  the  commutator 
may  be  adjusted,  and  any  one  may  be  removed 
without  disturbing  the  others.  The  dynamos  may 
be  run  in  either  direction.  A  1,000  horse-power 
machine  of  this  type  is  said  to  be  in  course  of  con- 
struction. 

Thomson-Houston  (250  kilowatt)  Four-Pole  Gen- 
erator.—In  general  outline  this  machine,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  adjoining  figure,  is  quite  similar  to 
the  large  Oerlikon  (Swiss)  machines  designed  by 
Brown,  and  probably  well  known  to  many  readers. 
It  has  four  radial  magnets  connected  around  the 
outside  by  a  massive  octagonal  yoke  piece.  The 
armature  is  of  the  Gramme  ring  type.  In  order  that 
the  conductors  inside  the  armature  may  be  held 
securely  in  place,  an  adjustable,  internal  wire  sup- 
port has  been  designed.  When  the  armature  is 
being  wound  the  wires  are  forced  into  position  so 
that  they  cannot  sag,  vibrate,  or  chafe  the  insula- 
tion. The  commutator  has  180  sections.  The  fields 
will  be  separately  excited,  although  the  connection 
at  the  switchboard  is  so  arranged  that  by  throwing 
a  switch  the  dynamo  can  be  made  self-exciting 
should  emergency  require  it.  The  movement  of  the 
brushes  is  effected  by  means  of  a  shaft  moved  by 
means  of  a  hand  wheel,  on  which  a  small  worm  is 
attached,  and  which  in  turn  works  in  a  rack  fas- 
tened to  the  yoke.  By  means  of  this  a  very  fine 
adjustment  of  the  brushes  can  be  made.  The  worm 
locks  the  yoke  so  that  it  cannot  be  moved  except  by 
hand.  The  total  floor  space  occupied  by  this  genera- 
tor is  13  feet  3-J  inches  by  7  feet  1  inch.  The  height 
of  the  machine  is  a  little  less  than  8  feet.  The 


290      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

pulley  is  43  inches  in  diameter  and  has  a  35-inch 
face.  The  speed  is  400  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
complete  weight  is  about  21  tons. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  claimed  for 
this  generator  is  the  arrangement  for  lubrication 
and  good  alignment  of  the  bearings.  The  boxes  are 
made  in  two  parts,  and  are  entirely  separate  from  the 
stands.  On  the  top  of  the  stand  is  a  seat  into  which 
the  spherical  surface  of  the  box  fits,  and  in  which 
the  box  is  free  to  move.  The  bolts  whicli  secure  it 
to  the  stand  are  smaller  than  the  holes  which  are 
drilled  through  the  box,  so  that  a  slight  play  of  box 
in  the  seat  is  permitted. 

The  bearing  shells  or  linings  are  removable,  and 
are  made  in  the  following  manner :  A  skeleton  shell 
of  brass  is  made,  the  interstices  of  which  are  filled 
with  Magnolia  metal.  This  is  then  bored  and  reamed 
to  size,  oilways  being  cut  so  that  the  oil  circulation 
begins  at  the  point  where  the  oil  rings  touch  the 
shaft.  This  method  of  manufacture  permits  a  per- 
fect circulation  of  oil,  insures  the  cool  running  of 
the  bearings,  and  greatly  reduces  the  care  and 
attention  required  by  the  dynamo  when  in  opera- 
tion. This  type  of  box  and  bearing  lining  has  proved 
so  satisfactory  that  it  is  now  being  introduced  in 
machines  of  smaller  size,  and  will  in  future  be  used 
on  all  machines  of  large  capacity.  In  order  that  the 
outboard  bearings  may  be  perfectly  aligned  with 
the  other  bearings,  the  stand  of  the  extension  base 
has  two  adjustments — one  in  a  horizontal  and  the 
other  in  a  vertical  direction.  These  adjustments  are 
made  by  the  screws.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  bearing  linings  the  armature  is  jacked  up 


GENERATORS,   MOTORS  AIID  TRUCKS. 


FIG,  33.— THOMSON-HOUSTON  FOUR-POLE  GENERATOR, 


292      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  so  that  the  bearing 
is  relieved  of  its  weight,  two  bolts  removed  from 
each  stand  and  the  entire  box  taken  out.  In  case 
it  is  not  desired  to  remove  the  box  the  cap  can  be 
taken  off  and  the  bearing  linings  readily  removed. 

Short  (112  kilowatt)  Four-Pole  Generator.— The 
field  magnet  frame  weighs  over  800  pounds,  nothing 
but  the  softest  and  purest  iron  being  used  in  the 
melting  pots.  It  is  annealed  very  slowly  in  the 
molds,  and  when  finished  is  so  soft  that  it  can  easily 
be  indented  with  a  hammer.  To  this  frame  are 
bolted  eight  field  magnets  carrying  the  shunt  and 
series  coils  and  provided  with  the  eight  pole  pieces 
making  it  a  four  pole  machine.  The  general  type  of 
the  frame  is  similar  to  the  Brush,  Schuckert,  and 
Mordey  machines.  Upon  a  shaft  nine  feet  long  by 
six  inches  in  diameter  is  keyed  a  spider  carrying 
the  foundation  ring  upon  which  the  armature  is 
built  up.  The  armature  is  of  the  "flat  ring"  type 
and  the  core  is  formed  of  sheet  iron  wound  spirally 
on  the  foundation  ring  and  riveted  firmly  together. 
The  outside  circumference  of  the  ring  is  somewhat 
wider  than  the  remainder,  and  this  portion  is  milled 
out  into  notches  forming  a  modified  Pacinotti  ring. 
The  coils  are  then  wound  on  the  core,  the  method 
being  such  that  each  one  of  the  200  coils  is  exposed 
to  the  air  on  all  sides,  thus  securing  ventilation. 
The  projecting  coils  are  a  sort  of  fan,  and  in  stand- 
ing before  the  machine  the  current  of  air  set  in 
motion  by  the  armature  can  be  detected  10  or  15 
feet  away.  As  a  consequence,  both  armature  and 
field  run  cool,  and  there  is  therefore  less  likelihood 
of  burning  out  a  coil  even  with  heavy  overloads.  It 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 

is  stated  that  a  burned  out  coil  can  be  wound  by  any 
good  mechanic  at  a  cost  of  two  or  three  dollars  and 
a  half  day's  labor.  One  of  the  features  of  the  arma- 
ture is  its  large  diameter,  viz.,  36  inches.  The  arma- 
ture shaft  runs  in  large  self-centring  and  self- 
oiling  bearings,  the  lubrication  being  acomplished 
by  rings  carried  by  the  shaft  and  drawing  oil  from 
a  reservoir  in  the  usual  way.  At  the  commutator 
box  is  also  found  an  adjustable  ball  bearing  thrust 
collar  containing  several  hundred  balls,  and  so 
arranged  as  to  carry  the  armature  thrust  in  either 
direction  without  heating.  The  commutator  is  quite 
large,  being  20  inches  of  diameter ;  it  has  200  bars, 
so  that  the  pressure  between  two  adjacent  bars  is 
only  5  volts.  It  is  a  four-pole  machine,  and  there  are 
four  multiple  carbon  brushes  carried  by  two  inde- 
pendent collars  and  sets  of  brush  holders.  The  com- 
pounding has  been  carefully  calculated,  and  the 
"pressure  curve"  is  a  straight  line,  passing  from  500 
volts  at  no  load  to  525  volts  at  full  load,  with  the 
speed  maintained  constant  at  500  revolutions. 

A  very  good  illustration  of  this  generator,  too 
large  to  be  reproduced  here,  will  be  found  in  The 
Electrical  World,  Sept.  5,  1891,  p.  165. 

Baxter  Multipolar  Generator. — This  generator  is 
designed  for  slow  speed.  It  is  an  eight-pole  machine, 
the  field  being  built  up  of  eight  magnets,  forming 
consequent  poles.  The  magnet  cores  are  laminated, 
and  are  clamped  together  so  as  to  form  a  rigid  ring, 
almost  as  much  so  as  if  they  were  made  of  one  solid 
piece.  This  field  ring  is  secured  to  the  frame  of  the 
machine  by  four  stout  bolts  attached  to  the  poles  of 
similar  sign.  The  armature  is  a  tooth  "Gramme" 


'294      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

ring,  and  the  total  air  space  is  very  small,  being  but 
a  small  fraction  of  an  inch.  The  magnetizing  force 
required  to  saturate  the  field  in  the  10  horse-power 
motors  is  less  than  4,500  ampere  turns.  The  shaft 
runs  in  two  large  bearings  in  the  centre;  the  driv- 
ing pulley  is  placed  at  one  end,  while  the  armature 
is  at  the  other.  The  bearings  are  both  in  one  solid 


FIG.  84.— BAXTER  MULTIPOLAR  GENERATOR. 

frame,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  get  out  of 
line.  By  this  construction  the  machine  can  be 
easily  taken  apart.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  take 
off  the  pulley  and  the  brush  holders,  then  the  arma- 
ture and  shaft  can  be  removed  at  once.  This  design, 


GENERATORS;  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      295 

with  the  addition  of  an  outside  bearing  for  the 
pulley  end  on  the  shaft,  will  be  used  in  the  large 
generators  for  railway  work.  They  will  either  be 
compound  wound  or  separately  excited.  The  makers 
advocate  separate  exciting  where  it  is  desired  to 
obtain  the  very  best  results.  Although  the  speed  at 
which  the  machines  run  is  very  low,  their  efficiency 
Is  said  to  be  very  high,  and  the  output  per  pound  of 
weight  is  claimed  to  be  greater  than  can  be  obtained 
with  the  ordinary  two-pole  machines. 

It  is  stated  that  the  8  horse-power  500  volt 
machines,  which  revolve  at  800  revolutions  per 
minute,  will  weigh  complete  a  little  over  500  pounds, 
and  the  electrical  efficiency  will  be  over  95  per  cent. 
This  is  equal  to  about  12  watts  per  pound,  which  is 
very  good.  The  75  horse-power  generator,  which 
runs  at  500  revolutions  per  minute,  will  have  an 
electrical  efficiency  of  over  96  per  cent.,  and  will 
weigh  about  6,000  pounds,  which  is  about  9.3  watts 
per  pound.  This  generator  has  an  armature  24 
inches  in  diameter,  with  a  9-inch  face.  The  shaft 
will  be  4|  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  hardened  steel. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  another 
form  of  the  Baxter  railway  generator.  It  is  wound 
for  a  potential  of  500  volts,  which  is  kept  constant, 
regardless  of  load  variations,  by  means  of  a  sepa- 
rate exciter,  and  the  multipolar  field  construction, 
while  the  Gramme  ring  armature,  of"  large  diam- 
eter, allows  of  a  slow  speed,  thus  reducing  to  a 
minimum  the  wear  on  the  commutator,  brushes, 
bearings,  belting,  and  shafting.  The  brush  holders 
are  so  designed  that  the  brushes  are  automatically 
fed  down  upon  the  commutator  with  a  light  and 


296      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

constant  pressure  which  insures  long  life  to  the 
commutator,  and  eliminates  sparking  due  to  uncer- 
tain pressure.  A  special  feature  of  this  generator  is 


FIG.  36.— BAXTER  GENERATOR. 


the  mounting  of  the  pulley  between  the  bearings, 
thereby  relieving  the  machine  from  all  torsional 
strain. 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      297 

Motors,  Gearing,  and  Trucks. 

The  subject  of  motors  in  general  will  be  found  in  a 
separate  volume  in  this  series  on  the  subject  of  dyna- 
mos and  motors.  The  descriptions  given  below  are 
limited  to  those  of  motors  specially  designed  and  built 
for  railway  service,  and  therefore  more  properly  be- 
long under  the  heading  of  railways.  The  subjects  of 
gearing  and  truck  are  so  intimately  connected  with 
that  of  motors,  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  here 
to  separate  them,  except  in  a  general  way. 

Kailway  motors  have  passed  through  such  a  stage 
of  development  during  the  past  year  that  they  may 
almost  be  said  to  have  been  completely  revolution- 
ized. Double  reduction  motors,  in  which  two  pairs 
of  gears  were  used,  have  given  way  to  single  reduc- 
tion motors,  having  only  one  pair  of  gear  wheels. 
Some  makers  have  gone  even  farther  and  have 
introduced  a  gearless  motor,  in  which  the  armature 
is  directly  coupled  with  the  shaft  of  the  driving 
wheels.  Although  the  latter  have  been  introduced 
in  a  few  cases,  they  must  still  be  looked  upon  to  a 
certain  extent  as  experi cental.  On  account  of  their 
slow  speed,  the  size  and  weight  necessarily  in- 
crease, and  an  additional  feature  is  introduced 
owing  to  the  fact  that  irregularities  or  dirt  on  the 
track  will  cause  the  resulting  hammer  blow  to  be 
communicated  to  the  armature,  unless  this  is  pro- 
tected by  some  means.  Other  features  which  have 
been  overcome,  or  which  are  desired,  will  be  seen 
from  the  descriptions  of  several  motors  given  below. 

In  a  report  of  a  committee  of  the  National  Elec- 
tric Light  Association  on  a  perfect  street  railway 


298     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

motor  Mr.  Everett  gives  the  following  opinions  on 
what  he  thinks  are  the  most  important  requirements 
for  a  railway  motor : 

"The  motors,  when  first  constructed,  were  alto- 
gether too  light,  both  mechanically  and  electrically, 
but  these  difficulties  are  being  overcome  very  rap- 
idly, as  well  as  the  serious  difficulty  of  too  rapid 
motion,  which  swelled  the  operating  expenses  very 
largely  in  maintaining  the  parts  and  replacing  the 
gearing.  The  best  motors  manufactured  hereafter 
will  be  the  most  simple  in  the  matter  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  parts,  and  at  the  same  time  not  con- 
suming too  great  a  quantity  of  electricity,  so  that  in 
addition  to  being  simple  they  will  also  be  economi- 
cal. I  think  it  would  be  an  improvement  if  in  all 
machines  made  a  better  insulated  wire  were  used 
in  both  armatures  and  fields.  A  more  reliable  and 
positive  fuse  wire  application,  one  that  would 
always  burn  out  while  still  under  the  capacity  of 
the  motor,  would  also  be  a  great  improvement. 

"  I  would  again  reiterate  the  fact  that  motors  have 
been  wonderfully  perfected  within  the  past  year, 
and  if  as  much  progress  is  made  during  the  coming 
year  there  can  be  very  little  to  ask  in  perfecting  a 
motor,  although  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  mechan- 
ical application  should  be  more  carefully  looked  after. 

"All  the  prominent  companies  seem  to  have  fallen 
into  the  same  error,  and  seem  to  persistently  and 
maliciously  continue  in  their  evil  ways.  I  do  not 
think  that  any  one  subject  connected  with  elec- 
trical propulsion  has  received  so  much  attention 
from  the  railways  as  this  one,  and  with  so  little 
co-operation  and  assistance  from  the  electrical  com- 


GENERATORS,   MOTORS  AN!)  TRUCKS. 

panies.  I,  of  course,  refer  to  the  price  of  their  equip- 
ment. It  appears  to  me  that  the  companies,  instead 
of  operating  4,000  motor  cars,  could  be  operating 
40,000  within  a  very  short  time,  if  they  would  bring 
the  price  down  to  a  reasonable  figure,  so  that  all 
companies  could  afford  to  purchase  an  equipment. 
I  think  it  would  be  desirable  if  the  electric  com- 
panies would  supply  all  extra  parts  from  their  shops 
at  a  price  allowing  a  reasonable  margin  for  profit. 

"The  perfect  motor  ought  to  have,  as  herein- 
before suggested,  a  reliable  fuse  plug  that  will  inva- 
riably blow  before  injury  is  done  to  the  machine.  It  is 
desirable  to  use  a  controlling  switch  that  is  easily 
operated  and  readily  reversed,  in  case  of  accidents. 
The  simpler  the  controlling  device  the  better,  and  it 
should  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  guard  against 
any  possible  disarrangements  of  the  parts,  so  that  it 
will  be  reliable  in  all  cases,  both  electrically  and 
mechanically.  The  rheostat  should  also  be  care- 
fully looked  after,  and  properly  protected  to  keep  it 
from  injury,  by  reason  of  water,  snow,  or  dirt  get- 
ting upon  it.  It  should  only  be  available  in  starting 
the  car  to  avoid  the  lunge  of  a  start,  and  should  be 
so  arranged  as  to  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  the  car  is 
started,  and  give  the  entire  efficiency  of  the  motor 
proper.  The  motor  should  be  well  protected  in  all 
parts  from  any  outside  interference,  so  that  in  run- 
ning along  the  street  it  will  be  impossible  to  pick  up 
nails,  wire,  or  anything  that  would  short  circuit  it, 
at  the  same  time  observing  that  a  motor  must  be 
properly  ventilated  to  keep  it  from  heating  while 
in  use.  The  cover  should  be  made  so  as  to  be  easily 
removed. 


300      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

"  I  deem  it  very  advisable  to  have  an  armature  of 
a  large  diameter,  making  a  small  number  of  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  with  the  bearings  made  of  extreme 
width,  with  proper  grease  cups,  and  in  such  a  con- 
dition that  they  can  be  readily  re  babbited  when 
slightly  worn.  The  diameter  of  the  commutator 
should  also  be  large,  and  to  have  the  brushes  easy 
of  access  is  very  desirable.  The  winding  of  the 
armature  ought  to  be  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  the 
size  of  the  wire  and  insulation  of  same  should  be 
carefully  looked  after.  I  think  the  insulation  wires 
in  armatures  is  at  present  one  of  the  weakest  points 
in  the  motor. 

"The  armature  gears  should  have  a  wide  face, 
and  run  in  oil.  The  armature  shaft  ought  to  be  of 
ample  diameter,  and  there  is  nothing  gained  by 
having  the  keyway  too  small  for  the  securing  of 
the  commutator  to  the  shaft.  The  commutator 
should  be  carefully  insulated,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  grounds  between  it  and  the  case.  The  box  in 
which  this  gear  runs  ought  to  be  constructed  of 
copper,  or  some  light  material  that  is  somewhat 
flexible,  so  that  if  struck  from  the  outside  it  will 
bend  rather  than  break.  The  fields  should  also  be 
wound  with  a  wire  of  better  insulation,  and  of 
ample  size  to  take  the  current.  Of  course,  in  this 
particular  I  do  not  intend  that  the  wire  of  either 
field  or  armature  should  be  great  enough  to  take 
more  horse-power  than  ought  to  be  used  by  the 
machine.  To  my  mind  it  is  very  desirable  to  have 
the  armature  in  such  a  condition  that  it  can  be 
readily  taken  from  the  machine  and  put  in  again. 
"  One  of  the  serious  disadvantages  to  operators  of 


302      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

electric  roads  is  the  expensive  labor  necessary  in 
winding  the  armature  and  fields,  also  in  regard  to 
high-priced  mechanics  who  ought  to  be  employed  to 
attend  to  the  machines.     There  is  nothing  gained  in 
employing  a  cheap  class  of  labor  to  handle  an  elec- 
tric equipment,  either  as  electricians,  armature  or 
field  men,  or  mechanics.     This  proposition  is  a  self- 
evident  truth,  as  can  readily  be  observed  in  many 
roads  now  in  operation.    At  present  (October.  1891,) 
I  think  the  single   reduction  motor  is  the   nearest 
perfection  of  any  on  the  market.     The  durability  of 
the  motor  is  a  question  which  requires  very  careful 
attention.     The  single  reduction  motor,  when  prop- 
erly looked  after,  ought  to  last  for  many  years.  We 
have  had  one  in  operation  for  over  10  months,  and 
it  appears  to  be  in  as  good  condition  as  when  it  first 
went  on  the  road.    The  noise  of  the  motors  has  been 
very  largely  done  away  with,  and  by  careful  atten- 
tion the   old  countershaft   machines   can   be   used 
until  worn  out  by  simply  covering  the  gearing  with 
an  oil  box,  and  by  not  attempting  to  run  them  too 
many  miles  without  inspection." 

Gearless  Motors. 

Short  Gearless  Motors.— The  accompanying  illus- 
trations, Figs.  3G,  37,  38,  show  the  method  of  mounting 
this  motor.  The  armature,  which  is  intended  to  run 
at  from  100  to  150  revolutions  per  minute,  is  mounted 
upon  a  hollow  shaft  through  which  passes  the  car 
axle.  This  hollow  shaft  is  made  of  steel,  and  is 
about  six  inches  in  diameter  on  the  outside,  with  an 
opening  inside  of  nearly  five  inches,  so  that  there  is 
a  clearance  between  the  axle  of  the  car  and  the 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.       303 

inside  of  this  hollow  shaft  of  an  inch  space  all 
around.  In  the  centre  of  this  hollow  shaft  the  arma- 
ture and  the  commutator  are  fastened,  and  on  each 
end  of  the  armature  shaft  are  keyed  two  heavy 
crank  discs,  made  with  an  iron  hub  and  rim,  and  a 
wooden  web.  This  thoroughly  insulates  the  arma- 
ture shaft  from  the  rim  of  the  crank  wheel.  This 
crank  wheel  rim  has  upon  one  side  a  crank  pin,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  illustration.  The  car  wheel  has 
a  crank  pin  also,  and  between  the  two  is  stretched 
a  heavy  coil  spring,  capable  of  pulling  with  a  very 
slight  elongation  2,500  or  3,000  pounds.  The  power 
of  the  motor  in  turning  the  wheel  is  transmitted 
through  these  springs.  Just  inside  the  crank  discs 
are  the  bearings  of  the  hollow  armature  shaft  in  the 
motor  frame.  This  motor  frame  is  made  of  two  cast- 
ings of  steel  with  arms  projecting  forward  and  back- 
ward (see  Figs.  37,  38,  39.)  These  arms  rest  on  rub- 
ber cushions  placed  on  channel  bars  which  go  from 
side  to  side  of  the  motor  frame.  In  this  way  the 
armature  is  held  up  in  the  frame  and  away  from  the 
axle,  and  the  entire  weight  of  the  motor  is  sup- 
ported by  these  spring  cushions  and  by  the  car 
boxes  outside  of  the  wheels  at  the  points  where  the 
car  body  is  supported.  None  of  the  weight  of  the 
motor  falls  on  the  axle  inside  of  the  wheels.  The 
spring  cushions  upon  which  the  motor  frame  rests 
are  limited  in  their  movements  to  a  fixed  distance, 
so  that  the  inside  of  the  armature  shaft  cannot 
come  down  upon  the  axle.  By  these  means  the 
motor  is  carried  entirely  on  springs. 

A  sheet-iron  casing  one-fourth  inch  thick  covers 
the  entire  motor.     This  casing  is  so  hung  on  hinges 


304     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

that  it  can  be  swung  open  to  allow  examination  of 
the  motor  from  beneath.  The  motor  is  constructed 
entirely  of  iron  and  steel,  and  its  weight  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  standard  type  of  Short  motor, 
and  its  efficiency  is  stated  to  be  somewhat  greater. 
The  armature  has  the  form  of  a  flat  Gramme  ring 
wound  with  a  very  large  number  of  independent 
sections.  The  diameter  is  as  great  as  is  consistent 
with  getting  the  motor  under  the  car,  giving,  of 
course,  a  powerful  torque  to  compensate  for  the  lack 


KC.CC . 


FIG.  37. 


of  gearing,  and  also  a  high  back  electromotive  force 
to  secure  as  much  efficiency  as  possible  at  low  rota- 
tive speed.  The  field  magnets  are  of  the  regular 
Brush  type,  eight  in  number,  producing  a  four-pole 
machine  with  a  very  intense  field  and  ver}^  narrow 
air  gaps.  The  first  movement  of  the  armature  is 
cushioned,  as  shown  in  the  cuts,  by  a  pair  of 
springs,  one  acting  in  tension  and  the  other  in  com- 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS. 


305 


pression,  and  the  full  torque  of  the  armature  comes 
upon  the  axle  only  after  a  rotation  of  nearly  60 
degrees.  This  feature  of  a  semi-flexible  connection 
between  armature  and  axle  is  said  to  lessen  the 
wear  and  tear  on  the  armature  very  considerably. 

Owing  to  the  large  diameter  of  the  armature,  a  36- 
inch  car  wheel  is  recommended  for  use  with  this 
motor,  and  under  these  circumstances  there  is  a 
clearance  of  five  and  a  half  inches  between  the  low- 


FlG.  38. 

est  part  of  the  motor  and  the  track,  ample  to  allow 
for  contingencies  that  are  likely  to  arise.  Whatever 
efficiency  may  be  lost  in  winding  for  slow  speed  is 
claimed  to  be  more  than  made  up  for  by  the  gain  of 
dispensing  with  the  waste  of  power  always  incident 
to  gearings.  The  resistance  of  the  motors  is  an  ohm 
and  a  quarter  for  the  two  coupled  in  parallel.  In 
trials  made  in  Cleveland  the  motor  was  subjected  to 
the  severe  test  of  reversing  at  full  speed  without 


306      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

injury  to  the  armature  or  producing  any  result  more 
serious  than  a  violent  spinning  of  the  wheels  in  the 
wrong  direction.  The  15  horse-power  machine  very 
closely  resembles  the  20  horse-power  illustrated, 
except  that  it  has  only  two  poles  and  four  field  mag- 
nets, arranged  as  in  the  ordinary  Brush  dynamos ; 
otherwise  the  construction  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  larger  machine. 

It  is  very  difficult  for  any  motor,  gearless  or 
geared,  to  crawl  through  city  streets  efficiently,  and 
the  gearless  type  is  at  a  special  disadvantage  in  this 
respect.  Its  best  field  is  on  comparatively  level  sub- 
urban roads,  running  at  rather  high  speeds,  and  for 
such  service  it  is  capable  of  giving  excellent  results. 
The  absence  of  heating  and  the  type  of  armature 
employed — with  widely  separated  coils  very  thor- 
oughly ventilated — give  good  reason  for  expecting 
small  repair  bills,  and  even  in  case  of  accident  dam- 
age is  easily  repaired,  as  a  coil  can  be  wound  in  a 
short  time  without  removing  the  armature  sleeve 
from  the  axle  or  doing  anything  more  than  clearing 
away  the  fields  to  obtain  ready  access  to  the  com- 
mutator. 

A  later  description  contained  the  following  note 
and  illustration  (Fig.  39) :  As  yet,  no  roads  have  been 
fully  equipped  with  this  motor,  so  that  a  careful 
study  of  its  performance  under  various  conditions  is 
still  lacking.  The  result  of  a  year  of  investigation 
and  experiment  on  gearless  motors  by  the  Short 
company  went  to  show  that  a  working  gearless 
motor  would  be  unlikely  to  prove  successful  unless 
it  was  of  multipolar  construction,  with  very  power- 
ful magnetic  circuit  and  small  magnetic  gap, 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


30^ 


equipped  with  a  Gramme  armature  of  compara- 
tively large  diameter.  These  characteristics  were 
embodied  in  the  present  gearless  motor,  which  in 
its  latest  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  There  are  but 


three  wearing  points  on  each  motor,  and  the  arma- 
ture is  of  extra  large  diameter ;  there  are  eight  field 
magnets  making  four  poles.  A  three-armed  spider 
is  placed  on  each  bed  of  the  hollow  shaft,  each  arm 


308     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

is  provided  at  the  extremity  with  a  socket  to  receive 
the  rubber  cushion  or  spring,  these  cushions  bear 
upon  lugs  cast  on  the  car  wheels,  and  as  the  arma- 
ture shaft  and  spider  revolve  the  action  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  car  axle.  The  rubber  cushion  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  insulation  and  easy  starting 
and  has  replaced  the  metallic  spiral  spring  of  the 
earlier  forms  of  the  motor.  The  insulation  from  the 
truck  is  very  complete.  The  distance  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  axle  to  the  bottom  of  the  casting  is  12 
inches,  and  at  a  speed  of  12  miles  per  hour  with  36- 
inch  wheel  the  armature  revolves  at  94  turns  per 
minute.  The  electrical  output  of  the  motor  has  been 
quite  carefully  investigated,  and  as  an  average  of  a 
large  number  of  readings  taken  on  the  three  electric 
lines  in  Cleveland  the  following  results  have  been 
obtained :  Average  volts,  480 ;  average  amperes,  24 ; 
electrical  horse-power,  15.44;  average  number  of 
passengers,  48. 

Regarding  this  gearless  motor,  Mr.  C.  C.  Curtis, 
of  the  Short  Electric  Railway  Company,  said :  "  In 
the  city  of  Rochester  there  has  been  kept  day  by 
day  an  accurate  record  of  the  motor  and  generator 
repairs.  That  road  started  running  in  November, 
1890,  and  giving  it  eight  months  of  run,  through  the 
winter  months — the  hardest  months  in  the  year — up 
to  the  first  day  of  August,  the  average  cost  of 
repairs  per  car  mile  was  four  mills.  When  I  say 
four  mills  per  car  mile,  I  mean  only  the  repairs  on 
the  generators  and  the  repairs  on  the  motors ;  that 
is,  the  electrical  repairs.  In  Muskegon,  Mich., 
where  we  have  been  running  about  a  year  and  a 
half,  our  record  shows  two  mills  per  car  mile.  By 


GENERATORS,   MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.  300 

removing  four  bolts,  you  take  off  the  two  lower 
wheels  and  raise  one  end  of  the  car  and  you  roll  out 
your  armature  and  the  car  axle.  Should  a  bobbin 
burn  out,  it  can,  because  of  its  peculiar  construc- 
tion, be  repaired  for  from  two  to  three  dollars. 
These  bobbins  are  only  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  deep  and  surround  the  outer  circle  of  the  arma- 
ture. They  are  not  connected ;  and,  should  one  burn 
out,  it  does  not  interfere  with  or  necessitate  the 
burning  out  of  any  of  the  others.  The  hue-and-cry 
has  been  raised  that  the  gearless  motor  is  a  very 
nice  thing,  theoretically,  but  in  practical  operation 
it  is  going  to  take  an  enormous  amount  of  current. 
I  have  a  report  of  a  test  made  in  Cleveland,  O.,  by 
Mr.  Al.  Johnson.  It  was  a  trial  between  one  of  his 
cars  and  one  of  the  Short  gearless  motor  cars. 
These  two  cars  ran  over  the  Brooklyn  street  railroad 
line,  running  about  20  minutes  apart,  doing  com- 
mercial work.  The  gearless  car  checked  up  some  80 
passengers,  and  the  single  reduction  motor,  which 
Johnson  was  running,  checked  up  47.  The  car  ran 
for  about  two  hours  and  a  half,  and  we  have  the 
half -minute  readings.  The  report  and  the  readings 
show  that  the  single  reduction  motor  takes  24  per 
cent,  more  current  than  the  gearless  motor." 
,  Westinghouse  Ironclad  Gearless  Motor. — As  will 
be  seen  in  the  figure,  this  motor  is  completely  sur- 
rounded and  protected  by  the  field  frame,  which 
forms  a  casing  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  all 
shocks  and  obstructions  of  the  roadbed.  The  field 
consists  of  two  symmetrical  castings  of  special  iron, 
sleeved  upon  the  armature  shaft  or  axle,  hinged  on 
top  and  secured  together  by  bolts.  The  joints  are 


SlO      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

made  watertight,  and  the  bearings  are  provided 
with  leather  cups  for  the  same  purpose,  which 
makes  it  dust  proof.  The  armature,  which  is  of  the 
drum  type,  is  built  upon  the  car  axle.  The  sheet- 
iron  discs,  being  solid  and  keyed  to  the  axle_.  give 


the  axle  an  additional  strength,  which  precludes 
any  possibility  of  its  bending.  This  arrangement,  of 
course,  eliminates  all  gearing.  The  car  wheels  are 
fastened  to  the  shaft  by  a  new  arrangement,  which 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      311 

makes  it  possible  to  replace  them  easily  and  quickly 
without  any  special  tools  or  skilled  labor.  The 
armature  is  but  16  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
grooved  periphery  for  the  wires,  which  not  only 
increases  the  efficiency,  but  holds  the  wires  rigid. 
It  is  securely  fastened  to  the  shaft,  and  connections 
with  the  armature  are  made  by  short,  heavy  wires. 
The  brush  holder,  which  is  rigidly  fastened  to  the 
magnet  frame,  is  well  insulated  and  easily  accessi- 
ble by  openings  provided  with  watertight  lids.  The 
weight  of  the  magnet  frame  is  counterbalanced  and 
cushioned  upon  powerful  spiral  springs  which  rest 
upon  the  cross  bars  of  the  truck.  These  springs  pre- 
vent the  field  from  rotating,  and  give  the  motor  the 
necessary  flexibility  for  easy  starting.  The  total 
depth  of  the  motor  is  but  20  inches,  giving  5  inches 
clearance  between  the  bottom  of  the  motor  and  the 
rail,  with  a  30-inch  wheel.  Actual  tests  are  said  to 
have  shown  a  working  efficiency  of  90  per  cent.  It 
is  also  claimed  that,  after  two  hours'  run  with  a 
load  of  over  20  horse-power  the  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  armature  and  field  coils  was  only  30°  C. 
above  the  surrounding  air.  There  are  three  types  of 
gearless  motors  made;  one  for  heavy  grade  city 
work,  one  for  ordinary  level  city  lines,  and  a  third 
for  suburban  service. 

Dahl  Slow  Speed  Motor. — This  motor  is  not  strictly 
speaking  "gearless,"  as  it  drives  by  means  of  a  fric- 
tion clutch,  but  as  there  are  no  reduction  gears,  it 
properly  belongs  to  this  class  of  gearless  motors. 

In  this  motor  an  armature  of  the  ring  type  of 
large  diameter  is  attached  to  a  non-magnetic  spider, 
which  is  placed  on  a  shaft  or  on  the  car  axle,  and  is 


312      RECENT  PROGEESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

free  to  revolve  about  it.  Attached  to  this  at  one  end 
is  one-half  of  a   friction   clutch,  the   other  side  of 
which  is  attached  to  the  axle  by  means  of  a  coiled 
spring.     On   each  side  of  the  web  of  the  spider  are 
two  magnetic  spools  and  cores,  through  the  latter 
of  which  the  hub  of  the  spider  is  free  to  revolve. 
Consequent  poles  are  formed  by  these  magnets  on 
the  interior  and  exterior  of  the  armature,  alterna- 
ting in  position,  those  magnets  on  the  outside  being 
brought  together  and   held  in   position  with  dowel 
pins,  and  a  yoke  being  bolted  rigidly  to  them.    This 
yoke  is  fastened  to  the  frame  or  truck  to  keep  the 
field  magnets  from  revolving.     The  whole  motor  ie 
protected  from  dust  and  other  foreign  substance  by 
a  brass  case  arranged  to  be  accessible.     All  fuses, 
connections  and  brushes  are  at  the  top  of  the  motor, 
and  are  accessible  to  the  operator  when  he  has 
opened  a  trap-door  in  the  car  and  one  of  the  slides 
in  the  casing.     The  clutch,  which  is  one  of  the  feat- 
ures of  the   motor,  is  composed  of  sheet-iron   discs, 
each   alternate  one  being  fastened  at  its  centre  or 
periphery.  Those  fastened  at  the  centre  are  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  spider  of  the  armature.    Those  fas- 
tened at  the   periphery   are   joined  to  a  spring,  as 
before  mentioned.    Rigid  action  is  secured  by  press- 
ing the  sheets  together  by  springs  interposed  in  such 
a  manner  that  at  a  predetermined  pull  on  the  clutch  it 
slips  and  allows  the  armature  to  revolve  faster  than 
the  axle.     The  armature  is  so  constructed  that  each 
individual  section  can  be  replaced  without  disturbing 
the  others,  should  it  be  needed.     By  the  use  of  the 
clutch  mentioned  it  is  claimed  that  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  overload  the  motor  beyond  a  predetermined 


GENERATORS,   MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


313 


314     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

point.  The  armature  may  be  kept  running  continu- 
ously, thereby  gaining  whatever  advantages  such  a 
method  of  operation  may  possess.  The  construction 
of  the  motor  is  such  that  it  is  practically  ironclad, 
with  no  outside  leakage  of  magnetism.  Mitis  iron  is 
used  for  magnet  cores,  and  the  clutch  is  composed 
of  40  discs  of  iron.  The  weight  of  a  motor  rated  at 
15  horse  power  is  1,690  pounds. 

Eickemeyer  Motor  and  Truck. — This  form  of 
motor  and  truck  embodies  the  features  of  both  the 
gearless  and  reduction  gear  motors  in  a  combined 
motor  and  truck.  Fig.  43  shows  the  truck  complete, 
as  fitted  with  the  motor ;  Fig.  44  gives  an  idea  of  the 
various  parts  and  their  construction,  the  motor 
being  removed  from  the  car,  its  frame  inverted,  and 
the  armature,  coils,  etc.,  shown  separately.  A  drum 
form  of  armature  is  used,  having  74  coils.  These 
are  wound  on  an  arbor,  from  which  they  are 
removed  and  thoroughly  dried  and  insulated,  and 
then  placed  in  position  so  that,  should  a  coil  become 
damaged  it  may  easily  be  removed  and  replaced 
without  interfering  with  the  other  coils  or  with 
their  work.  The  armature  is  supported  midway 
between  the  two  axles  and  has  its  shaft  connected 
by  ordinary  connecting  rods  with  crank  pins  to 
both  axles,  the  connecting  rods  attached  to  both 
ends  of  armature  shaft,  and  the  cranks  set  at  an 
angle  of  90  degrees,  preventing  the  armature  from 
ever  getting  on  the  dead  centre  and  also  giving  a 
maximum  starting  torque  in  all  positions.  A  second 
feature  is  the  use  of  only  a  26-inch  car  wheel  in 
place  of  the  usual  36-inch  wheel  required  to  raise 
the  gearless  motor  above  the  roadbed,  the  smaller 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


315 


wheel  allowing  a  higher  armature  speed,  and  con- 
sequent increase  in  commercial  efficiency.  Owing 
to  the  form  of  frame  no  extra  seating  is  required  to 
protect  the  motor,  as  it  is  entirely  inclosed  in  an 


ironclad  casing.  The  rheostats  are  placed  in  boxes 
supported  over  the  axles,  and  the  controlling  mech- 
anism connected  by  shafts  running  the  entire  length 


316    RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

of  the  car  may  be  operated  from  either  end ;  while 
all  switch  mechanism  is  protected  in  casing  below 
the  car  floor  within  easy  access  for  repair  and 
inspection.  The  sills  of  the  car  body  rest  on  the  four 
iron  brackets  placed  on  the  motor  castings,  and  on 
beams  that  extend  across  each  end  of  the  truck. 

Leonard's  Method  of  Avoiding  Gearing. — Under 
the  subject  of  motors,  in  the  volume  on  "Dynamos 
and  Motors,"  will  be  found  described  a  method  for 
running  motors  at  any  speed  with  constant  torque 
and  nearly  constant  efficiency.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  using  three  motors  and  dynamos  in  place 
of  one,  so  arranged  that  the  current  and  voltage  for 
the  last  motor  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  speed  and  torque.  The  portion  of  that 
description  referring  to  railway  motors  is  reprinted 
here  in  full,  in  the  language  of  the  inventor : 

"  For  operating  an  electric  railway  we  will  place  a 
shunt-wound  motor  on  the  car,  and  directly  driven 
by  this  motor  will  be  a  special  generator,  which 
will  be  connected  to  the  electric  motor  below  the 
car.  It  is  evident  that  the  generator  and  working 
armature  may  be  wound  for  any  voltage  desired, 
say  20  volts,  which  will  make  the  problem  of  insu- 
lating the  street-car  motor  an  extremely  simple  one. 
If  desirable,  we  can  supply  several  cars  of  a  com- 
mon train  from  one  special  generator  on  the  for- 
ward car.  With  this  outfit  we  will  be  able  to  take 
any  car  up  any  practicable  grade  or  around  any 
curve  with  no  more  power  than  is  required  to  move 
the  car  on  a  level,  and  always  consume  the  same 
power,  regardless  of  weight,  grades,  or  curves. 
That  is,  the  automatic  increase  of  current,  to  take 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      317 


318      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

care  of  any  increased  torque,  will  be  compensated 
for  by  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  volts  and 
speed.  We  may  start  a  car  up  any  grade  or  curve 
with  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  power  required  for 
normal  speed  on  a  level. 

"I  wish  to  call  attention  to  a  very  important 
development  leading  out  from  this,  namely,  that  we 
will  be  able  to  use  alternating  currents  for  opera- 
ting our  street  cars,  for  it  is  well  known  that  the 
ordinary  alternating  current  generators  will  oper- 
ate perfectly  as  motors,  if  the  speed  and  torque  be 
kept  constant.  Since  by  this  system  we  can,  from 
a  constant  torque  and  speed,  get  any  other  torque, 
and  automatically  a  corresponding  speed,  we  shall 
be  able  to  run  street  cars  perfectly  by  alternating 
currents.  This,  again,  will  enable  us  to  dispense 
with  trolleys,  conduits*  storage  batteries,  etc.  We 
will  place  between  our  tracks,  in  manholes,  con- 
verters whose  primary  pressure  can  be  anything 
required  for  proper  economy,  and  whose  secondary 
will  be  say,  15  volts.  This  secondary  circuit  will 
connect  directly  with  the  rails.  The  road  will  be 
divided  in  sections,  each  a  few  hundred  feet  long, 
and  each  section  will  be  supplied  by  its  own  con- 
verter. 

"  On  first  consideration,  the  additional  apparatus 
necessary  would  seem  to  make  the  system  prohib- 
itory in  practice ;  but  the  capacity  of  the  present 
single  molor  is  greater  than  the  combined  capacity 
of  the  apparatus  this  system  would  require,  and  the 
capacity  of  the  prime  motor  is  very  much  reduced. 

"  In  order  to  reduce  the  first  cost  to  a  minimum 
and  yet  secure  the  advantage  of  different  automatic 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS.  319 

speeds  and  high  efficiency,  I  have  devised  two  mod- 
ifications of  the  arrangement  described  above.  The 
first  is  adapted  to  power  in  which  a  smooth,  efficient 
acceleration  of -a  load  from  rest  is  required,  as  in 
the  case  of  passenger  locomotives  and  elevators. 
The  second  case  is  where  various  automatic  speeds 
are  desired,  but  no  special  importance  attaches  to 
the  starting  of  the  load  from  rest,  as  is  the  case  in 
machinery  in  general. 

"  For  the  first  case,  we  have  the  trolley  system  of 
electric  street  cars  as  the  most  important.  Let  us 
suppose  we  have  two  motors  of  15  horse-power  each 
for  the  car.  We  find  that  for  full  speed  upon  a  level 
we  require  about  15  amperes  at  500  volts.  Upon 
heavy  grades  we  find  that  about  50  amperes  are 
required,  and,  as  before,  we  have  500  volts.  With 
this  consumption  of  energy  We  find  that  we  get  a 
speed  upon  the  heavy  grade  which  is  about  one- 
quarter  of  the  speed  upon  a  level.  In  order  to  oper- 
ate upon  my  system,  let  us  place  upon  the  car  a 
motor  generator,  the  motor  part  of  which  is  wound 
for  500  volts  and  12|  amperes  and  the  generator 
part  of  which  is  wound  for  125 '  volts  and  50 
amperes.  The  fields  of  the  motor  and  generator  part 
are  distinct,  and  are  wound  for  500  volts,  as  are  the 
fields  of  the  two  propelling  motors  under  the  car. 
All  these  fields  are  supplied  from  the  500-volt  trolley 
circuit.  In  the  field  of  the  auxiliary  generator  is 
placed  a  rheostat. 

"  Now  suppose  the  car  at  rest  upon  a  grade.  The 
motor  generator  is  running,  but  the  generator  has 
a  very  weak  field.  Its  armature  is  connected  by  a 
controlling  switch  to  the  propelling  motors,  We 


320      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

now  gradually  cut  out  resistance  from  the  genera- 
tor field  circuit,  and  finally  get  about  20  volts  at  the 
brushes  of  the  generator.  With  this  E.  M.  F.  we  get 
sufficient  current  to  produce  50  amperes  through  the 
armatures  of  the  propelling  motors  in  a  saturated 
field.  This  gives  us  the  full  torque,  and  the  car 
starts  at  a  speed  of  perhaps  half  a  foot  a  second. 
This  speed  can  be  maintained  constantly  and  indefi- 
nitely, and  the  consumption  of  energy  will  be  less 
than  two  horse-power.  This  is  less  than  three  am- 
peres from  the  trolley  line.  In  practice,  however, 
the  speed  will  be  rapidly  but  gradually  accelerated, 
until  we  have  125  volts  upon  the  terminals  of  the 
propelling  motors.  We  will  now  be  running  at  one- 
quarter  speed,  and  will  be  consuming  125  volts  and 
50  amperes,  that  is,  6£  kilowatts  instead  of  25  kilo- 
watts to  get  the  same  result  with  existing  motors. 
To  put  it  another  way,  we  will  not  be  using  as  muoh 
energy  as  is  represented  by  the  500  volts  and  15 
amperes-  necessary  for  full  speed  on  a  level. 

"  The  next  step  on  the  controlling  switch  will  dis- 
connect the  armatures  of  the  propelling  motors 
from  the  auxiliary  generator  and  put  the  two  arma- 
tures in  series  across  the  trolley  line  direct.  We  will 
now  go  at  a  speed  represented  by  250  volts,  that  is, 
one  half  full  speed.  The  next- step  of  our  switch  will 
place  the  two  armatures  in  multiple  across  the  500 
volts,  and  the  next  and  last  step  will  place  the  120- 
volt  auxiliary  generator  in  series  with  the  main 
central  station  generators  and  give  us  625  volts  on 
our  armatures  and  correspondingly  increased  speed. 
We  will  be  able  to  go  up  a  grade  of  six  to  eight  per 
cent,  at  full  speed,  with  50  amperes  and  500  volts, 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.       321 

which,  with  the  present  motors,  gives  only  about 
one-quarter  of  that  speed. 

"Under  this  arrangement  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  only  apparatus  which  could  be  called  addi- 
tional is  the  small  motor  of  500  volts  for  the  gener- 
ator part  of  our  motor  generator,  which  is  usefu), 
not  only  for  starting,  but  for  full  speed  also.  In 
stopping  the  car  we  have  an  electric  brake  action 
delivering  back  energy  to  the  line  at  full  efficiency 
and  not  through  a  rheostat,  as  at  present. 

"  If  we  have  a  train  of,  say  three  cars,  so  that  we 
have  six  motors,  we  can  start  from  rest  with  suffi- 
cient smoothness  by  placing  all  six  armatures  in 
series,  which  will  give  us  something  less  than  one- 
sixth  speed  as  the  first  step.  Then  we  can  place 
three  in  series  with  two  multiples,  which  gives  us 
one-third  speed.  Next,  two  in  series  with  three  mul- 
tiples, which  gives  us  one-half  speed ;  and  finally, 
all  in  multiple,  which  gives  us  full  speed.  Under 
such  conditions,  we  can  dispense  with  the  small  con- 
verting plant  altogether." 

Single  Reduction  Motors. 

Westinghouse  Four-Pole  Motor.— Fig.  45  shows 
a  general  view  of  the  new  motor  closed  in  its 
casing  and  ready  for  use.  Its  general  form  is 
cylindrical,  giving  both  the  shortest  possible 
magnetic  circuit  and  maximum  strength  with 
minimum  amount  of  material.  All  the  sharp  cor- 
ners that  tend  to  leak  magnetism  are  eliminated, 
and  the  machine  is  claimed  to  be  rendered  thereby 
slightly  more  efficient.  The  details  of  the  magnetic 
circuit  are  best  shown  by  examining  Fig.  47,  which 


322      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN    ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

shows   the   casting   freed  from  armature  and  coils 
and  opened  up  to  exhibit  its  arrangement.     The 


FIG.  45.— GENERAL  VIEW  OF  MOTOR. 


form  of  the  magnetic  circuit  makes  it  possible  to 
utilize  four  poles  with  great  advantage ;  they  are, 
as  will  be  seen,  rather  narrow,  and  consequently 
are  capable  of  being  magnetized  by  comparatively 


FIG.  46.— BRUSH  HOLDER  AND  COIL. 

short    and    small    windings.     One    of  these  coils, 
together  with  a  brush  holder,  is  shown  in  Fig  46. 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.       323 

The  brush  holder  is  a  casting  bolted  on  to  the  lower 
side  of  the  main  frame  of  the  motor,  and  lifting  its 
brushes  quite  on  to  the  top  of  the  commutator, 
where  they  rest  90  degrees  apart.  The  castings  are 
of  a  specially  soft  grade  of  iron  that  has  proved 
to  have  excellent  magnetic  properties. 
The  gearing,  inclosed  as  it  is  in  an  oil-tight  case 


FIG.  47.— MOTOK  WITH  AUMATI  RI;  REMOVED. 

(Fig.  48).  is  always  thoroughly  lubricated  and  free 
from  dirt.  All  the  bearings  are  bushed  with  metal, 
and  the  armature  shaft  is  tightly  tapered  to  facili- 
tate the  removal  of  the  pinion.  The  gear  ratio  is 
3.3  to  1.  The  iron-clad  form  of  the  motor  enables  it 
to  be  completely  shut  in  by  applying  side  plates, 
so  that  in  actual  practice  it  is  inclosed  so  tightly  as 


324      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS. 

to  be  quite  free  from  the  numerous  difficulties  so 
often  experienced  from  dirt  and  moisture  finding 
their  way  into  the  working  parts  of  a  machine.  As 
the  lower  surface  of  the  motor  presents  only  a  solid 
casing  it  cannot  .be  injured  by  casual  blows  from 
projecting  rubble,  a  source  of  difficulty  with  which 
electric  street  railway  men  are  only  too  familiar. 
Fig.  49  gives  a  perspective  view  of  the  motor,  show- 


FlG.  48. 

ing  its  arrangement  in  the  frame  and  connection  to 
the  gears.  The  armature  of  the  new  machine  is  of 
the  drum  type.  The  core  is  built  up  of  grooved  iron 
plates,  so  that  the  windings  are  in  slots  upon  its 
surface,  thus  completely  imbedded  in  insulating 
material.  The  surface  of  the  finished  armature  is 
therefore  entirely  smooth  and  the  clearance  space 
very  small.  Even  should  the  bearings  become  worn 
so  that  the  armature  would  brush  against  the  pole 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.       325 

pieces,  no  serious  damage  would  be  done  because  no 
wire  is  exposed. 

The  electrical  efficiency  of  the  motor  is  said  to 
rise  to  95  per  cent.,  and  the  commercial  efficiency  to 
75  or  76.  Inasmuch  as  the  efficiency  of  the  two- 
pole  motors  of  various  makes  with  the  complicated 
gear  is  generally  held  to  be  a  little  over  60  per 
cent.,  the  abolition  of  the  intermediate  gear  ought 
certainly  to  be  good  for  more  than  10  per  cent, 
increase  in  efficiency.  The  normal  speed  of  the 
armature  at  a  car  speed  of  about  10  miles  per  hour 


FIG.  49. 

is  380  revolutions  per  minute.  The  commutator  is 
designed  with  special  reference  to  obviating  the 
heating  that  is  sometimes  so  disastrous  in  street-car 
motors.  Each  segment  of  the  commutator  has  a 
bearing  along  its  entire  lower  edge,  so  that  even  if 
there  should  be  any  slipping  the  symmetry  of  the 
commutator  would  not  be  destroyed.  The  cross-sec- 
tion of  the  armature  enables  the  two  brushes,  as 
before  mentioned,  to  be  placed  90  degrees  apart, 
and  both  upon  the  top  of  the  commutator,  where 


326      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

they  can  be  readily  inspected  or  replaced  if  neces- 
sary. 

Thomson-Houston  Slow  Speed  Motor. — The  single 
reduction  gear  motor,  ordinarily  called  the  "  S.  R. 


G.,"  seen  in  Fig.  50,  is  very  nearly  iron-clad,  having 
two  pole  pieces  of  ample  surface  and  carrying  two 
field  coils,  which  partially  surround  the  armature 
core.  The  magnetic  circuit  is  completed  on  the  front 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS.  327 

end  of  the  motor  through  the  face  plate  and  at  the 
back  through  the  frame  on  which  are  cast  the  axle 
boxes  and  arms  which  serve  as  a  support  for  the 
armature  shaft  bearings.  The  armature  is  of  the 
Gramme  ring  type,  and  the  bobbins  are  wound  close 
together  around  the  entire  rim.  One  advantage  of 
this  construction  is  the  fact  that  any  coil  can  be 
easily  rewound  without  disturbing  the  others,  while 
with  the  drum  armature  formerly  used  the  wind- 
ings all  had  to  be  renewed  down  to  the  injured  coil. 
The  brushes  are  placed  exactly  opposite  and  in  a 
horizontal  fixed  position.  There  seems  to  be  no 
sparking  under  the  ordinary  running  conditions, 
and  the  brushes  are  easy  of  access.  The  field  spools 
are  protected  on  all  sides  by  the  fields  and  frame. 
The  gears  are  entirely  inclosed  in  a  dust  and  oil- 
tight  case,  which  is  provided  with  a  hand-hole 
closed  by  a  spring  cover,  permitting  ready  exami- 
nation of  gears  and  the  introduction  of  lubricants. 

A  sheet-iron  pan  extending  above  the  centre  of  the 
armature  shaft  entirely  incloses  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  motor  and  protects  the  armature  and  commu- 
tator from  dust,  snow,  and  water.  This  pan  has  a 
sliding  bottom,  and  is  attached  to  the  motor  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  permit  of  being  readily  removed  for 
access  to  the  various  parts.  The  motor  when 
mounted  on  a  truck  with  30  inch  wheels  is  de- 
signed to  clear  the  tops  of  the  rails  four  inches. 
The  spur  gear  on  the  armature  shaft  is  of  steel,  four 
and  one-half  inches  face,  and  has  14  teeth.  The  split 
gear  on  the  car  axle  is  of  cast  iron,  with  the  same 
width  of  face,  and  has  67  teeth.  The  speed  of  the 
armature  shaft  relative  to  that  of  the  car  axle  is 


328      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

nearly  as  4.8  to  1 ;  when  the  car  is  running  ten  miles 
per  hour  the  armature  makes  538  revolutions  per 
minute,  or  the  speed  of  the  armature  is  53.8  turns 
per  minute  when  the  car  speed  is  one  mile  per  hour. 
The  gears  are  surrounded  by  an  iron  box  so  that 
they  may  be  run  in  oil. 

The  facility  with  which  the  armature  can  be  re- 
moved simply  by  lifting  the  upper  field,  the  ease 
with  which  an  armature  bobbin  can  be  rewound, 
less  liability  to  damage  from  centrifugal  action, 
such  as  bursting  of  binding  wires,  displacement  of 
coils,  breaking  of  commutator  connections,  all  in- 
sure a  minimum  amount  of  expenditure  for  repairs. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  very  plainly 
the  general  appearance  and  detailed  construction  of 
the  motor.  The  advantages  claimed  by  the  design- 
ers have  been  summarized  as  follows:  Noiseless 
single  reduction  gears,  protected  from  dust  and  run 
in  oil,  and  noiseless  commutator.  Electrical  and 
mechanical  simplicity  attained  by  use  of  two-pole 
type  of  motor,  Slow  speed  and  powerful  torque 
obtained  by  proper  proportions.  Protection  for 
fields  and  armature  from  dust  and  water.  Accessi- 
bility to  all  parts.  A  ring  armature  not  likely  to 
become  damaged,  and,  if  accidentally  injured,  per- 
mitting easy  repairs.  Moderate  weight.  Reason- 
able cost.  Commercial  efficiency.  Small  mainte- 
nance expense. 

Thomson-Houston  W.  P.  Motor. — The  accompany- 
ing illustrations  show  a  new  motor  known  to  the 
trades  as  the  W.  P.  motor,  which  means  water 
proof,  because  of  the  particularly  complete  iron-clad 
character  of  the  field  magnets. 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


329 


It  is  a  two-pole  machine,  based  on  the  theory  that 
the  comparatively  slight  gain  in  weight  efficiency 
that  could  be  obtained  with  a  multipolar  type  is 
more  than  offset  by  the  increased  complication  of 
the  windings.  The  only  portions  of  the  machine 
open  to  the  outside  air  are  exposed  at  the  two  oval 
openings  at  the  ends  of  the  armature  shaft,  and 
even  these  can  be  easily  fitted  with  cover  should  it 
be  desirable.  The  whole  magnetic  circuit  is  com- 


FIG.  51.— THOMSON-HOUSTON  W.  P.  MOTOR. 

posed  of  two  castings  bolted  together  and  free  to 
swing  apart  by  a  hinge  allowing  ready  access  to 
the  armature.  Fig.  52  shows  the  internal  arrange- 
ments. The  armature  itself  is  very  nearly  twenty 
inches  in  diameter,  a  very  powerful  Pacinotti  ring 
nearly  six  inches  on  the  face  and  of  about  the  same 
depth.  It  is  wound  with  comparatively  coarse  wire 
in  sixty-four  sections,  with  fourteen  turns  to  the 
section.  Each  coil  is  tightly  placed  in  the  space 
between  two  of  the  protecting  teeth,  and  about  the 


330      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

interior  space  the  separate  coils  are  closely  packed, 
leaving  only  sufficient  room  for  the  four-armed 
driving  spider.  As  will  be  seen,  the  armature  takes 
up  most  of  the  full  height  of  the  machine,  the  pole 
pieces  being  but  trifling  projections  and  the  requis- 
ite cross  section  of  iron  being  obtained  by  extend- 
ing the  poles  to  form  a  closely  fitting  iron  box  that 
appears  in  the  exterior  view.  An  unusual  feature 


FIG.  52.— THOMSON-HOUSTON  W.  P.  RAILWAY  MOTOR. 

is  the  use  of  but  a  single  magnetizing  coil  wound 
not  directly  about  the  upper  pole  piece  but  on  the 
casing  immediately  surrounding  it.  The  lower  pole 
is  but  slightly  raised  and  both  pole  pieces  have  the 
greatest  surface  permissible  with  the  dimensions  of 
the  machine.  The  use  of  a  single  magnetizing  coil 
produces  naturally  an  unbalanced  field  and  a  strong 
upward  pull  on  the  armature  tending  to  relieve  the 
pressure  on  the  bearings.  The  iron-clad  form,  how- 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


331 


ever,  tends  to  distribute  the  lines  of  force  so  as  to 
avoid  the  sparking  and  change  of  lead  that  might 
otherwise  have  to  be  feared.  The  single  field  coil  is 
wound  with  quite  coarse  wire  and  its  position  is 


claimed  to  insure  the  maximum  magnetic  effect 
from  the  current.  The  speed  of  the  motor  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  older  S.  R.  G.  form,  but  its 
general  working  efficiency  is  somewhat  better, 


332      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

owing  not  so  much  to  a  greater  maximum  of 
efficiency  as  to  a  better  working  curve — at  both 
heavy  and  light  loads.  The  brush  holders  are  shown 
in  Fig.  53,  and  the  slots  in  which  they  fit  render 
their  position  evident.  The  brushes  are  of  the  ordi- 


nary carbon  description  and  are  readily  accessible 
through  the  opening  at  the  end  of  the  shaft.  The 
gears  run  in  oil. 

Short  Motor.— In  this  motor,  known  as  the  water- 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.       333 

tight,  and  more  familiarly  as  the  W.  T.,  one  pinion 
and  one  gear  have  been  dispensed  with  and  the  re- 
maining gear  is  run  in  oil.  The  figure  gives  an  idea 
of  the  arrangement.  It  is  claimed  to  be  of  about  the 
same  efficiency  as  the  other  types,  and  is  the  lightest 
and  smallest  of  their  standard  motors.  It  weighs  all 
told  a  trifle  less  than  1,800  pounds,  is  incased  and 
completely  protected  by  its  iron  frame  and  can  be 
operated  on  30,  33  or  36  inch  wheels,  and  any  gauge 
of  track  down  to  three  feet.  It  is  especially  recom- 
mended for  narrow  gauge  roads,  for  mining  and 
similar  purposes.  Two  sizes  are  made,  15  and  20 
h.  p.  One  of  the  features  of  these  is  the  facility 
with  which  repairing,  in  cases  of  necessity,  can  be 
carried  on.  With  the  geared  motors  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  motor  and  car  wheels ;  the  car 
can  be  run  over  a  pit  and  every  part  of  the  motor 
reached  without  difficulty.  The  armature  coils  may 
be  rewound  without  removing  the  armature  from 
the  axle,  and  the  field  coils  can  be  quite  as  easily 
repaired.  The  commutator  may  be  reached  and 
cared  for  with  ease  while  the  machine  is  running. 
The  motor  field  coils  and  armature  are  easy  of 
access,  and  the  armature  can  be  removed  in  case  of 
necessity  by  two  men  in  eight  minutes,  its  weight 
being  only  198  pounds.  In  fact,  every  part  of  the 
motor  can  be  removed  without  taking  the  machine 
to  pieces.  On  the  Rochester  (N.  Y.)  railway  daring 
eight  months  the  total  cost  of  repairs,  including 
material  and  repairs  to  electrical  machinery,  was 
but  four  mills  per  car  mile,  and  the  average  loss 
per  car  from  necessary  repairs  was  but  four  per 
cent,  of  the  total  car  mileage. 


334      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

The  Edison  motor  shown  in  the  adjoining  figure 
was  illustrated  but  not  described.  It  will  be  seen 
that  it  is  a  four  pole  frame,  with  only  two  coils ;  it 
is  partially  iron-clad.  The  armature  is  a  Gramme 


ring,  presumably  with  iron  projections.     It  has  a 
single  reduction  gearing, 

A  Swiss  Motor  and  Truck. — The  truck  and  motor 
shown  in  Figs.  56  and  57,  used  on  the  small  Swiss  road 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


335 


336      RECENT    PROORESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

from  Sissach  to  Gelterkinden,  described  else- 
where, are  of  interest  as  showing  the  practice  in  that 
country.  The  published  description  was  very 
meagre,  but  the  cuts  will  explain  themselves.  The 
motor  was  made  by  the  Oerliko'n  Company  and  is 
their  new  standard  type,  they  having  abandoned 
the  worm  wheel  motor,  used  before. 

The  construction  of  the  electric  locomotive  is 
shown  in  Fig.  56. 

The  most  important  feature  of  the  construction  is 
the  arrangement  of  electric  motors,  which  rest 
directly  upon  the  car  axles,  a1  a2 .  Power  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  car  axle  through  a  single  set  of  gears. 
The  motor  armatures  make  about  450  to  500  revolu- 
tions per  minute  when  the  train  is  running  at  its 
normal  speed.  The  placing  of  the  armature  shaft 
and  car  axle  in  the  same  vertical  plane  is  claimed 
to  give  better  results  than  the  arrangement  in 
which  the  four  shafts  of  the  armatures  and  car 
wheels  are  placed  in  one  horizontal  plane,  since 
under  all  conditions  of  load  the  same  distance  is 
maintained  between  the  centres  of  the  intermediate 
gear  wheels. 

The  motors,  Fig.  57,  are  four-pole  drum  armature 
machines  having  a  normal  output  at  full  capacity 
of  25  h.  p.  Each  motor  has  but  a  single  pair  of 
carbon  brushes  which  press  against  the  bronze  com- 
mutator in  such  a  position  that  the  motor  man  can 
reach  them  easily  even  when  the  car  is  in  motion. 
The  machine  has  been  so  carefully  designed  that 
the  position  of  the  brushes  remains  constant  under 
all  variations  of  load. 

Siemens  &  Halske  Motor  and  Truck. — The  form 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


337 


of  motor  and  truck  used  at  present  by  this  firm  is 
shown  in  the  adjoining  figures.     This  firm  is  the 


largest  and  oldest  electrical  manufacturer  in  Ger- 
many and  it  will  be  remembered  that  they  were  the 


338      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

pioneer  electrical  railroad  builders.  They  have 
furthermore  constructed  the  only  large  plant  of  a 
conduit  road  running  at  present  in  the  city  of  Buda- 
pest in  Hungary.  The  motor  and  truck  described 
below  are  those  used  on  this  line.  In  their  trucks 
there  is  only  one  motor  of  15  h.  p.  driving  one  pair 
of  the  four  wheels  with  fixed  axles;  the  wheels 
have  a  slight  axial  motion.  There  is  a  double  reduc- 
tion gearing  from  the  armature  to  the  axle ;  the 
first  pair  is  driven  by  a  chain  to  reduce  the  noise, 
the  second  pair  sometimes  consists  of  two  gear 
wheels  and  sometimes  of  a  chain.  Fixed  carbon 
brushes  are  used.  The  magnets  are  of  wrought  iron 
and  the  whole  motor  and  gearing  is  inclosed  in  a 
zinc  box. .  The  second  pair  of  wheels,  which  are  not 
driven,  are  connected  to  the  motor  frame  by  means 
of  a  flexible  coupling,  which  enables  them  to  turn. 
Such  trucks  can  readily  go  over  curves  of  12  metres 
(39  feet)  radius.  The  trucks  are  complete  in  them- 
selves, and  can  readily  be  secured  to  the  bottom  of 
any  car  which  has  previously  been  used  for  horse  • 
traction.  They  use  300  volts  and  state  that  it  takes 
about  80  amperes  to  start  a  car  for  24  passengers. 

Henry  Motor  and  Gearing. — Nearly  all  the  pres- 
ent forms  of  street  car  motors  are  centred  upon 
the  axle  and  are  free  to  move  through  a  small  arc 
about  its  centre.  In  this  form,  however,  for  sim- 
plicity and  strength  of  construction,  fchis  method  is 
abandoned  for  a  design  which  reminds  one  of  the 
English  locomotive  designs ;  the  mechanical  differ- 
ence between  this  new  motor  truck  and  the  usual 
ones  is  like  that  between  the  English  and  Ameri- 
can locomotives.  The  latter,  as  is  well  known,  was 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS.  339 


340      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

designed  for  as  great  a  degree  of  flexibility  as  the 
conditions  of  the  problem  allow,  supported  on 
springs  at  every  point  practicable.  The  English 
designers,  on  the  other  hand,  rely  on  the  perfection 
of  the  track  for  freedom  from  shocks,  and  make 
the  frame  work  of  the  machine  as  strong  and  sim- 
ple as  possible.  As  might  be  expected  the  results 
of  the  two  types  are  equally  good  under  the  two 
conditions  for  which  they  are  severally  intended. 
In  the  Henry  motor  and  truck  all  spring  supports 
are  deliberately  avoided,  and  an  attempt  is  made 
to  reduce  the  working  parts  to  the  smallest  number 
possible,  and  to  support  them  so  firmly  that  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  their  getting  out  of  order. 

Only  one  motor  is  employed,  instead  of  two,  and 
only  one  pair  of  wheels  is  driven  by  the  gearing, 
the  other  being  operated  by  a  connecting  rod.  This 
construction,  which  might  be  objectionable  on  an 
old  horse  car  track  full  of  inequalities  and  continu- 
ally getting  out  of  line,  is  said  to  be  excellent  when 
used  in  connection  with  proper  track  construction. 
The  motor  itself  is  rigidly  fastened  to  the  steel 
frame  that  connects  the  axles,  its  ends  having  bear- 
ings on  three-inch  steel  axes,  parallel  with  the  axles 
of  the  wheels.  The  magnetic  circuit  has  but  two 
joints,  and  its  form  is  not  dissimilar  to  that  which 
has  been  employed  by  Reckenzaun  in  England.  It 
is  very  short  and  the  windings  are  very  compact ; 
it  has  two  consequent  poles  that  embrace  a  Gramme 
armature  18  inches  in  diameter. 

The  armature  is  wound  with  two  layers  of  No.  7 
wire  divided  into  72  armature  segments,  each  con- 
nected to  its  appropriate  commutator  bar.  The 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS.  341 


342      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

winding  is  continuous  throughout,  loops  being 
taken  out  at  the  commutator  instead  of  the  wire 
being  cut.  The  face  of  the  armature  is  13  inches 
wide,  and  the  clearance  space  is  as  small  as  is  con- 
sistent with  good  mechancial  construction.  The 
insulation  of  the  armature  wires  is  exceptionally 
thick  and  firm,  almost  equal  in  thickness  to  that  on 
line  wire,  and  the  whole  is  so  firmly  put  in  place  in 
case  of  an  armature  section  burning  out  it  need 
only  be  cut  off  at  the  commutator,  and  the  machine 
may  then  be  run  until  the  damage  can  be  repaired. 
The  fields  are  wound  with  No.  9  wire,  and  the  four 
coils  arranged  for  three  combinations  at  the  switch- 
board, all  in  series,  two  in  series  and  two  in  paral- 
lel, and  all  in  parallel,  therefore  giving  three  speeds 
by  this  rearrangement.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
size  of  the  wire  used  in  this  motor  is  much  larger 
than  it  has  been  customary  to  employ,  so  far,  and 
the  resistance  of  the  machine  is  therefore  very  low, 
so  low,  in  fact,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  employ 
the  machine  without  danger  of  excessive  starting 
currents  were  it  not  for  the  clutch  device  through 
which  it  drives  the  truck.  This  consists  in  the 
well  known  epicyclic  gearing  arrangement, 
capable  of  running  freely  when  the  epicyclic 
pinion  is  free  to  move,  and  exerting  its  full  power 
when  the  pinion  is  held  fast  by  the  clutch 
lever.  The  armature  therefore  can  run  all  the  time, 
or  be  allowed  to  give  its  full  speed  before  any  of 
the  load  is  thrown  on ;  as  soon  as  the  clutch  is  tight- 
ened, it  can  take  hold  and  utilize  its  momentum  in 
starting  the  car,  thereby  avoiding  a  sudden  rush  of 
current  that  has  proved  so  disastrous  to  many  arm- 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS.      343 

atures.  The  epicyclic  gear  is  inclosed  in.  a  tight  case 
and  runs  in  oil,  so  that  the  noise  is  very  much 
diminished,  and  the  wear  is  much  less  than  with 
exposed  gears.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  armature 
is  geared  down  but  once  instead  of  twice.  The  re- 
duction is  seven  to  one  instead  of  twelve  to  one  as 
in  many  other  trucks.  A  slight  modification  will 
allow  the  armature  to  be  connected  directly  with 
the  internal  gear  after  the  car  is  under  way,  thus 
allowing  very  high  speeds.  A  mechanical  addition 
to  the  motor  gear  is  an  automatic  brake ;  there  are 
two  friction  wheels,  one  upon  the  axle  and  the 
other  upon  the  shaft  which  supports  one  end  of 
the  motor ;  the  latter  is  arranged  with  an  eccentric 
operated  by  a  lever,  so  that  it  can  be  thrown 
into  gear  with  the  friction  drum  upon  the  axle  when 
set  in  motion ;  by  this  means  it  winds  up  the  brake 
chain  and  checks  the  car. 

A  convenient  feature  of  this  truck  is  the  fact  that 
the  field  magnets  can  be  slid  sidewise  along  the  two 
axles  which  support  their  ends,  and  the  armature 
can  then  be  slipped  in  the  opposite  direction  so  as 
to  expose  nearly  its  entire  face,  thus  enabling  small 
repairs  to  the  armature  to  be  executed  quite  easily 
without  removing  it.  The  present  machine  weighs 
little  over  2,500  pounds,  and  is  of  about  30  h.  p.,  thus 
replacing  in  power  more  than  the  two  motors  ordi- 
narily used. 

Winkler  Gearing.— In  the  system  shown  in  the 
cut  a  single  20-h.  p.  motor  is  employed  per  car;  it  is 
arranged  to  run  loosely  until  the  power  is  applied  to 
the  car  by  a  friction  clutch,  which  allows  putting 
on  the  load  gradually.  This  reduces  the  great  initial 


344     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

current,  and  utilizes  to  a  great  extent  the  momen- 
tum cf  the  armature  in  overcoming  the  static  fric- 
tion of  the  car.  Both  axles  are  driven  by  this  single 
motor,  the  power  being  transmitted  from  the  di- 
rectly driven  axle  to  the  other  by  means  of  a  pair 
of  wire  ropes  running  over  pulleys  of  the  peculiar 
construction  shown  in  the  cut.  These  give  a  grip 
on  the  driving  rope  that  renders  slipping  less  liable. 
The  momentum  of  the  armature  is  sufficient  to  start 
the  car  from  rest  even  when  the  current  is  cut  off 
before  throwing  on  the  friction  clutch.  The  arma- 


FIG.  60.— WINKLER  GEARING. 

ture  speed  is  low  enough  to  permit  the  use  of  a  sin- 
gle reduction  gear. 

Goss  Truck  and  Gearing.— In  the  accompanying 
illustration  of  the  Goss  truck,  the  armature  shaft 
runs  lengthways  of  the  car,  and  has  two  gears  of 
different  diameters  which  mesh  into  two  gears  of 
corresponding  different  diameters  fitted  with  fric- 
tion clutches,  on  a  shaft  running  parallel  to  the 
armature  shaft,  on  each  end  of  which  are  bevel 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS. 


345 


gears  meshing  into  gears  on  the  axles.  On  each  end 
of  the  car  is  placed  a  controlling  stand  with  three 
handles.  The  upper  one  controls  the  speed  of  the 
car  by  a  rheostat.  The  middle  one  is  the  reversing 


FIG.  fil.— Goss  GEARING. 


lever,  and  the  lower  one  connects  to  the  two 
clutches.  By  the  use  of  this  lower  lever  the  driver 
has  at  his  command  by  a  single  movement  an  oppor- 
tunity to  obtain  either  power  or  speed.  On  this 


346      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

truck  with  36-inch  wheels,  when  the  lever  is 
thrown  to  the  left  a  speed  of  only  four  miles  per 
hour  is  obtained,  but  with  great  power  for  use  on 
hills,  pulling  out  cars,  etc.  Throwing  it  to  the 
right  a  speed  of  16  miles  per  hour  is  obtained. 
Different  speeds  can  be  had  for  different  roads  by 
a  change  of  gears  on  the  armature  shaft,  etc.  In 
one  case  the  regular  car,  being  partially  disabled, 
was  unable  to  climb  the  hill  six  miles  from  the 
power  station,  and  called  upon  this  car  to  push  it 
up,  which  it  did  with  its  load,  starting  on  the  hill. 
The  car  is  especially  adapted  for  very  heavy  grades 
and  sharp  curves. 

Loose  Wheel  Gearing. — In  the  truck  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  the  wheels,  26  inches 
in  diameter,  are  loose  upon  the  axle,  and  are  fitted 
inside  the  hub  with  the  Tripp  roller  bearing,  carried 
on  a  4  1-2  inch  journal.  Upon  the  inside  of  each 
wheel  is  bolted  a  20-inch  gear,  fitting  into  a  pinion 
eight  inches  in  diameter  that  is  keyed  to  each  end 
of  the  armature  shaft.  This  applies  power  to  four 
different  points,  and  gives  traction  upon  all  the 
wheels.  The  entire  weight  of  the  motor  is  supported 
by  two  rigid  axles,  thus  overcoming  the  fric- 
tion caused  by  the  motor  bearing  upon  a  revolv- 
ing axle.  The  truck  is  interchangeable  and  will 
swivel  under  either  an  open  or  a  closed  car.  It  will 
also  take  any  radius  of  curve  without  interfering 
with  the  car  sills. 

Peckham  Truck.— Fig.  G3  shows  the  radial  geared 
cantilever  truck  as  adapted  for  the  usual  styles  of 
motor.  Figs.  64  and  65  show  the  yoke  and  journal 
box.  The  object  is  to  obtain  the  maximum  flexibility 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS. 


347 


348     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

in  a  four-wheel  truck,  and  to  this  end  the  axles  are 
cushioned  and  are  given  the  advantage  of  a  per- 
ceptible though  small  radial  flexibility.  The  side 
frames  are  composed  of  wrought  iron  and  steel  bars 
riveted  to  yoke  pieces  of  malleable  iron  so  as  to 
form  a  practically  continuous  structure.  The  ex- 
tensions that  support  the  end  springs  to  prevent 
swaying  of  the  car  body  are  rendered  rigid  by  a 
cantilever  truss,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  bend 
in  the  side  bar  is  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the 
free  removal  of  the  armatures  sidewise.  One  of  the 
most  important  features  is  the  radial  gear  intended 
to  give  flexibility  to  the  axle  connections  and  to 


FIG.  63.— PECKHAM  TRUCK. 

provide  cushioned  supports  for  the  boxes.  The 
malleable  iron  yokes  that  support  the  side  frames 
upon  the  journal  boxes  are  formed  with  sockets  in 
the  upper  sections,  into  which  are  inserted  rubber 
cushions,  shown  at  B,  Fig.  64 ;  the  upper  section  of 
the  spherical  bearing  (7,  Figs.  64  and  65  is  constructed 
of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  apertures  in  the 
yoke;  the  lower  sections  fit  into  sockets  in  the 
journal  boxes,  but  with  a  little  more  play  than 
usual  to  give  increased  springiness  in  the  whole 
structure.  The  whole  weight  of  the  side  frames 
rests  upon  the  rubber  cushions  inserted  between  the 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


349 


yoke  and  the  upper  section  of  the  spherical  bear- 
ings. The  lower  section,  E,  Figs.  64  and  65,  serves 
simply  to  steady  the  boxes,  and  is  carried  directly  by 
the  repairing  piece  E  in  the  lower  portion  of  the 
yoke  and  held  in  position  by  the  bolts  shown  in  Fig. 
65 ;  removing  these  enables  the  side  bars  to  be  com- 
pletely detached  from  the  boxes.  The  car  body  is 


FIG. 


supported  on  the  springs  upon  the  side  frames  and 
given  additional  steadiness  by  the  double  plungers 
bearing  in  the  yokes. 

Fulton  Truck.—  The  object  in  this  truck,  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  is  to  construct  it  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  wheels  are  always  in  line 


350      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

and   run  true,  preventing  the  uneven  wearing  of 
the  wheels,  as  the  truck  is  rigid. 

The  main  sills  and  cross  sills  are  made  of  wood, 
which  prevents  bolts  working  loose  and  rattling.  A 
new  form  of  brake  is  used,  which  is  set  on  the  main 
sills,  so  constructed  that  a  direct  pull  is  made  on 


FIG.  65. 

each  brake  shoe,  giving  the  same  pressure  on  each 
wheel,  and  when  the  brake  is  set  its  position  is 
always  the  same  relative  to  the  car  axles,  so  that 
no  effect  in  pulling  down  or  lifting  the  car  body  is 
noticeable.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the 
wheels,  the  car  can  be  jacked  up  and  raised  with 


GENERATORS,    MOTORS   AND   TRUCKS.  351 


~ 


352      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

the  sub-sill  left  stationary  to  the  body  by  removing 
four  bolts  on  the  side  of  the  journal  boxes  and  four 
others  on  the  side  of  one  of  the  main  sills,  and  tak- 
ing the  lids  off  the  oil  boxes  and  removing  the  brass 
keys,  when  the  whole  side  of  the  truck  can  be 
pulled  off  with  springs  and  boxes  attached. 

Three  Rivers  Truck. — The  special  feature  embod- 
ied in  this  truck,  shown  in  the  figure,  is  the  principle 
of  the  equalization  of  strains.  A  cross  equalizing 
bar  is  placed  across  one  end  of  the  truck,  by  means 
of  which  a  three  point  suspension  of  the  car  body 
is  effected,  a  double  spring  being  placed  in  front  of 
and  a  single  spring  at  the  side  in  rear  of  the  front 
wheels.  Springs  are  also  supported  on  the  bar  at 
each  end  of  the  rear  axle.  The  wheels  are  ground 
to  a  perfect  equality  in  circumference,  after  being 
pressed  upon  the  axle,  thus  insuring  wheels  that 
will  run  true  with  the  axle.  Self-oiling  boxes  con- 
taining simple  device  holding  a  strip  of  wool  felt 
close  to  the  axle  require  attention  only  once  in  two 
or  three  months,  even  when  the  traffic  is  heavy. 
The  operating  mechanism  of  the  brakes  is  simple 
and  entirely  out  of  the  way  of  the  motor,  while 
the  shoe  brakes  are  both  flange  and  tread,  and 
when  worn  oan  be  quickly  replaced  by  simply  re- 
moving a  key.  The  entire  truck  may  be  lifted  from 
either  or  both  axles  by  simply  removing  a  bolt 
under  the  end  of  the  axle. 


GENERATORS,  MOTORS  AND  TRUCKS. 


353 


II, 


354     RECENT  PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ACCESSORIES. 

The  following  is  a  collection  of  abstracts  made 
from  some  of  the  more  important  of  the  numerous 
descriptions  of  accessories  published  during  the  past 
year.  Some  of  them  must  be  looked  upon  as  mere 
suggestions,  while  many  will  no  doubt  be  super- 
seded by  improvements,  which  their  defects  will 
point  out. 

Trolley  Arms  and  Trolleys. — The  accompanying 
illustration  shows  a  one  spring  compression  trolley ; 
by  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  set  screws  in  the  link 
any  tension  that  may  be  desired  can  be  obtained, 
from  1  to  20  pounds.  The  spring  is  inserted  in  a 
cylinder  or  casing  so  that  it  cannot  get  out  of 
place  or  out  of  working  order.  It  is  light  and  is 
easy  and  convenient  to  handle.  The  top  of  the  base 
stands  only  seven  inches  above  the  top  of  the  car 
roof  and  the  pole  may  be  drawn  down  at  either  end 
of  the  car.  The  wheel  is  made  from  the  best 
bronze,  provided  with  hardened  bearings  and  will 
run  from  one  to  two  weeks  with  only  one  oiling. 

The  construction  of  the  "Common  Sense"  arm 
will  be  seen  from  the  adjoining  figure.  The  arm 
can  be  used  at  angles  varying  from  two  to  fifty 
degrees  on  either  side  of  the  perpendicular.  The 
advantage  of  this  trolley  arm  is  that,  as  the  pole 
is  bent  further  away  from  the  perpendicular,  or 


ACCESSORIES. 


355 


say  40  degrees  (the  usual  working  angle),  the 
upward  pressure  of  the  arm,  instead  of  growing 
stronger  as  in  most  other  trolley  carriers,  becomes 
less,  thus  allowing  of  working  under  bridges  and 
other  places  where  the  trolley  wire  is  low. 
In  the  Lieb  trolley,  illustrated  on  page  356,  the  alu- 


FIG.  68.— DUGGAN  TROLLEY  AND  ARM. 

minium  wheel  which  was  at  first  used,  being  found 
unsuitable  for  the  purpose,  has  been  replaced  by  a 
similar  one  of  other  material.  In  the  trolley  base  the 
pull  on  the  side  springs  is  applied  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  only  a  very  slight  resistance  to  the  move- 


356      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

ment  of  the  trolley  pole  and  wheel  in  a  lateral 
direction.  It  is  said  that  this  is  the  only  trolley 
wheel  made  in  which  the  spindle  revolves  with  the 
wheel.  The  wear  due  to  the  friction  will  be  such 


FIG.  69.— THE  COMMON  SENSE  THOLLEY  ARM. 

that  the  trolley  spindle  and  the  bearing  in  which  it 
revolves  will  always  have  a  perfect  fit,  and  the 
wheel  will  turn  easily  upon  its  centre.  It  is  often 
the  case  when  the  trolley  wheel  turns  upon  the 
spindle  that  the  bearing  inside  the  wheel  soon  wears 
into  a  shape  other  than  circular,  causing  a  very 


FIG.  70.— LIEB  TROLLEY  WHEEL. 


uneven  and  undesirable  motion  of  the  wheel.  The 
spindle  is  bored  out  at  each  end,  the  cavities  thus 
formed  being  filled  with  oiled  felt ;  three  small  holes 
extending  from  the  cavities  to  the  surface  of  the 


ACCESSORIES.  357 

spindle  serve  to  carry  the  necessary  amount  of 
lubrication  to  the  wearing  surfaces.  Lignum  vitse 
bushings  are  used,  and  these  can  be  replaced  with- 
out removing  the  trolley  wheel.  The  tension 
brought  upon  the  trolley  pole  by  the~springs  of  the 
base  is  so  evenly  distributed  for  the  different  posi- 
tions of  the  pole  that  it  is  possible  to  pass  under  a 


FIG.  71. -ELECTRICAL  SUPPLY  Co.'s  HANGER. 

bridge  only  five  inches  higher  than  the  top  of  the 
car. 

Trolley  Wire,  Hangers,  Clamps  and  Insulators.— 
The  Electrical  Supply  Co.  7s  hanger  shown  here  dis- 
penses with  soldered  ears  and  riveted  clips  in  sus- 
taining trolley  wires.  By  tightening  the  bolt  at  the 
top  of  the  clamp  the  wire  is  firmly  clasped,  while 


358      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

by  loosening  the  bolt  the  wire  is  instantly  released 
with  great  ease.  The  time  and  trouble  of  shifting 
its  position  on  the  trolley  wire  is  so  small  that  it  is 
easy  to  adjust  it  to  any  contracting  or  slackening 
of  the  lines.  The  hanger  is  sprung  upon  the  span 
wire  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  tension  of  the  wire 
holding  it  in  place.  The  clamp  screws  into  a  plate 
dovetailed  in  the  vulcanized  rubber,  incased  in  the 
metallic  shell.  It  will  be  observed  the  clamps  do 
not  quite  reach  the  lower  surface  of  the  wire  and 


FIG.  72.— CLINCH  HANGER. 

are  trimmed  and  rounded  so  that  they  escape  the 
trolley. 

In  the  "  Clinch"  hanger  shown  here  the  insulating 
material  is  of  rubber,  similar  to  that  ordinarily 
used  for  combs ;  the  stem  and  yoke  of  the  insulator 
are  of  malleable  iron  and  the  pin  is  made  of  brass. 
Whatever  strains  are  brought  upon  the  insulator 
are  entirely  those  of  compression.  There  are  no 
screw  threads  either  upon  the  pin  or  the  insulating 
material. 


ACCESSORIES. 


359 


The  Pierce  hanger  is  made  of  malleable  iron,  of 
the  bell  type,  and  has  a  cavity  in  its  interior,  in 
which  is  placed  a  porcelain  insulator  of  the  ordi- 
nary type.  This  is  held  in  position  by  an  insulating 
compound,  which  is  poured  around  the  porcelain 
while  hot,  and  filling  the  grooves  in  the  sides  of  the 
bell  chamber  and  on  the  side  of  the  porcelain,  holds 
the  latter  firmly  in  position. 


f  "T '  S 

L^LJU^r 


FIG.  73.— PIERCE  HANGER. 

The  Creaghead  hanger  shown  in  the  cuts  was 
described  as  follows :  The  superiority  of  glass  as 
an  insulator  is  recognized  by  all.  The  glass  insu- 
lator, screwed  on  the  wood  pin,  has  been  used  in 
electrical  line  work  for  years,  and  is  recognized  as 
the  best  practice  for  line  insulation.  The  wood  act- 
ing as  a  cushion  adapts  itself  to  any  condition 
arising  from  unequal  expansion  of  the  wood  and 


360     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

glass,  thus  securing  the  glass  insulator  against 
breakage.  As  shown  in  Fig.  74,  this  hanger  con- 
sists of  a  grooved  glass  insulator  into  which  is 


FIG.  74.— CREAGHEAD  HANGER. 


screwed  a  wooden  plug.  The  bolt  for  securing  the 
clamp  to  the  wooden  plug,  has  a  round  head  at  the 
top  and  a  thread  at  the  bottom  and  is  screwed  into 


FIG.  75.— CREAGHKAD  HANGKR. 


the  clamp.  The  yoke  shown  in  Fig.  75  fits  loosely  in 
the  groove  of  the  insulator,  as  shown  in  Fig.  74.  The 
inner  curve  of  the  yoke,  coming  in  contact  with  the 


ACCESSORIES.  361 

insulator,  is  a  half  circle  with  a  slightly  larger 
radius  than  that  of  the  smallest  circle  of  the 
groove.  It  is  necessary  to  remove  the  yoke  from  the 
insulator  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  before  it 
becomes  disengaged  from  the  groove.  The  yoke 
can  be  put  on  and  taken  off  of  the  span  wire  easily 
and  without  tools.  All  strains  on  the  insulator  tend 
to  increase  the  hold  of  the  yoke  and  span  wire  on 
the  insulation.  While  the  attachment  of  yoke  and 


FIG.  76.— LIEB  HANGER. 

trolley  wire  is  secure,  it  is  at  the  same  time  flexible, 
and  will  adjust  itself  to  unequal  expansion  of  mate- 
rials. 

The  accompanying  illustration,  Fig.  76,  shows  a 
complete  Lieb  hanger,  and  Fig.  77  shows  the  method 
of  construction.  In  Fig.  77  the  metal  socket  in  which 
the  clip  screw  fits  is  part  of  a  ring  imbedded  in  the 
composition,  and  the  rivet  which  holds  the  iron 


362      RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

hood  to  the  insulator  passes  through  this  ring,  being 
separated,  however,  from  it  by  the  insulating  com- 
position. The  advantage  of  this  is  that  it  prevents 
the  insulator  from  dropping  the  trolley  wire,  no 
matter  what  accident  may  happen  to  it.  Repeated 
blows  of  the  trolley  can  break  the  composition,  and 
sven  make  connection  between  the  span  wire  and 
the  trolley  wire,  but  the  trolley  wire  is  always  sup- 
ported by  means  of  the  rivet  passing  through  the 


FIG.  77.— LIEB  HANGER. 

ring,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  trolley  wire 
falling  in  the  street.  The  clip  has  two  jaws  hinged 
so  as  to  clasp  the  trolley  wire,  and  these  jaws  are 
forced  together  by  means  of  a  taper  point  on  the 
screw  holding  the  clip  to  the  insulator,  and  which 
forces  the  jaws  on  the  trolley  wire.  The  clip  is  ad- 
justable, and  will  fit  any  size  of  wire,  from  a  num- 
ber zero  to  a  number  four.  In  attaching,  the  insu- 
lator is  first  screwed  to  the  trolley  wire  and  then 


ACCESSORIES. 


363 


snapped  in  place  on  the  span  wire.  By  this  con- 
struction the  jaws  of  the  clamp  cannot  become  acci- 
dentally loose,  since  the  clamp  can  be  opened  only 
by  turning  the  insulator,  which  involves  discon- 
necting it  from  the  span  wire. 
In  the  Robinson  hanger  shown  in  the  figure  the 


FIG.  T8.— ROBINSON  HANGER. 


span  wire  clamp  is  of  brass  and  can  be  made  to 
clasp  the  span  wire  with  sufficient  tightness  to  pre- 
vent any  slipping  or  side  movement.  The  globe  part 
is  of  cast  iron,  the  two  halves  being  separated  by 
about  one-half  inch  of  hard  rubber  extending  be- 


364      RECENT   PROGEESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

yond  the  edge,  and  so  shaped  as  to  make  an  um- 
brella-like watershed.  The  clamp  holding  the  trol- 
ley wire  is  set  up  by  a  screw,  and  leaves  the  under 
part  of  the  wire  exposed. 

The  Gustin  clamp  is  formed  in  three  distinct 
parts,  two  sections  with  opposing  lips,  one  of  which 
is  provided  with  a  threaded  projection  upon  which 
the  clamping  nut  is  screwed ;  the  other  with  a  dog 
inclosed  by  the  protruding  lower  rim  of  the  nut. 
Through  the  lower  portion  of  these  opposing  sec- 


FIG.  79.— GUSTIN  CLAMP. 


tions  a  groove  is  formed  to  contain  the  trolley  wire 
of  any  size.  The  opposite  lips  are  cut  at  such  an 
angle  that  they  still  engage  each  other  when  the 
largest  trolley  wire  is  inserted  in  the  groove.  The 
screwing  down  of  the  nut  upon  the  threaded  projec- 
tion and  over  the  dog  causes  the  lips  to  slide  one 
within  the  other,  thus  forcing  together  the  lower 
sections  of  the  clamp  upon  the  wire,  preventing  all 
possibility  of  falling.  The  movement  of  the  wire 
from  expansion  and  contraction  is  provided  for  in 


ACCESSORIES. 


365 


the  hinge  joint  included  in  the  nut.  The  clamp  is 
independent  of  the  style  of  insulator  used  in  con- 
nection with  it. 

The  McTighe  clamp  is  composed  of  a  single  piece 
of  hard  rolled  sheet  copper  stamped  out  in  such 
form  that  it  may  be  folded  up  from  beneath  around 
the  trolley  wire,  and  the  folded  bends  clamped 
together  and  supported  by  any  of  the  usual  forms 
of  insulators.  The  final  tightening  on  the  wire  is 
done  by  means  of  the  key  bolt  shown  in  the  cut, 


FIG.  80.— MCTIGHE  CLAMP. 

which,  acting  on  the  interlaced  portions  of  the  clip, 
causes  the  latter  to  tighten  around  the  wire  like  a 
strap.  By  suitable  selection  of  the  size  of  key,  any 
degree  of  grip  may  be  obtained,  and  any  of  the 
usual  sizes  of  trolley  wire  may  be  used  without 
changing  the  construction  of  the  clip.  One  advan- 
tage lies  in  the  fact  that  the  clips  may  be  attached 
to  the  trolley  wire  and  to  the  line  hangers  without 
actually  tightening  the  clips  themselves  on  the  trol- 
ley wire,  and  this  operation  may  therefore  be  de- 
ferred until  such  times  as  the  entire  line  is  ready  for 


366      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

drawing  in  and  straightening,  and  then  it  is  neces- 
sary only  to  apply  key  bolts.  After  a  line  has  be- 
come stretched  and  needs  tightening,  the  hanger 


FIG.  81.—  STERLING  CLAMP. 


permits  the  key  bolts  to  be  withdrawn  from  any 
desired  section  of  the  line  so  that  the  latter  may  bo 
adjusted.  During  this  operation  there  is  no  possi- 


FIGS.  82  AND  83.— STERLING  CLAMP. 


bility  of  the  trolley  wire  falling  to  the  street,  and 
the  motor  traffic  is  not  obstructed.  For  curve 
hangers  the  suspension  bolt  is  made  with  a  broad 


ACCESSORIES.  36? 

downward   extension  which  fits  the  face  of  the  clip 
and  gives  it  all  necessary  lateral  support. 

The  Sterling  clamp  is  shown  in  the  adjoining  fig- 
ures. Fig.  81  shows  the  completed  hanger.  Fig.  82 
the  clasp  which  passes  around  the  wire  and  into  the 
edge  of  a  slotted  block  and  Fig.  83  is  the  support, 
which  is  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  slotted  block 
and  is  screwed  into  the  core  of  the  bell-shaped  insu- 
lator. It  will  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  these 
parts  that  when  put  together  and  fastened  into  the 


FIG.  84.— WHEELER  CONNECTOR. 

position  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  81  they  cannot  be 
detached  from  each  other. 

The  clip  for  connecting  two  trolley  wires,  shown 
in  Fig.  84  explains  itself.  Both  wires  are  firmly  held 
in  place  with  their  ends  bent  under  the  clip,  by  a 
key  that  is  held  in  place  by  a  screw. 

In  the  accompanying  illustrations  Fig.  86  shows 
a  centre  curve  insulator  made  of  locust  wood 
with  caps  of  mild  steel  pressed  upon  the  tapered 
ends  of  the  wooden  centre  piece.  The  eyes 


368      RECENT   PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

and  caps  are  in  one  piece,  making  the  insulator 
simpler  and  saving  the  expense  of  extra  eye  bolts. 


Fig.  85  shows  a  complete  pull-off  bracket,  the  body 
of  which  is  also  made  of  locust  wood.    After  several 


ACCESSORIES.  369 

years  of  experimenting  in  work,  Mr.  Lieb  has  con- 
cluded that  locust  wood  is  the  best  insulating  mate- 
rial to  use  for  a  fixture  that  is  subject  to  all  the 
abuses  of  an  insulator  on  a  street  railway  curve. 
The  shrinking  or  expanding  of  the  wood  in  dry  or 
wet  weather  does  not  affect  the  insulator,  as  the 
wood  is  larger  at  the  bottom  of  the  caps.  When  a 
strain  is  put  on  the  insulator  it  acts  as  an  inverted 
wedge,  and  the  wood  inside  of  the  cups  is  com- 
pressed, preventing  splitting,  etc.  The  more  strain 
is  placed  upon  the  insulator  the  tighter  will  it  be 
made  to  fit  in  the  caps. 


FIG.  87.— ANDERSON  INSULATOR. 

The  accompanying  figure  shows  a  half  sectional 
view  of  the  Anderson  railway  bell  insulator,  made 
of  solid  insulating  material.  Besides  possessing  high 
insulating  properties  this  material  is  claimed  to  be 
very  strong,  tough  and  durable,  and  absolutely  im- 
pervious to  water  and  unaffected  by  atmospheric 
conditions. 

The  Robinson  centre  curve  insulator  in  the  ad- 
joining figure  is  chiefly  composed  of  cast  iron,  the 
insulation  being  effected  by  the  introduction  of 


370      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

hard  rubber  bushings  of  ample  extent  and  thickness 
to  prevent  leakage.  He  claims  that  the  chief  objec- 
tion to  some  of  the  other  styles  of  curve  insulators  is 
the  lack  of  sufficient  strength  to  hold  a  heavy  line, 
j  especially  in  winter,  when  the  strain  of  the  ice  is 
considerable. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  Gould 
&  Watson  molded  mica  insulator  for  span  wires, 
which  possesses  the  advantages  of  a  span  insulator 
and  turn  buckle  combined.  In  setting  up  a  span  the 
wire  is  cut  off  to  length  and  attached  to  the  eye- 
bolts,  of  which  one  is  unscrewed  from  its  case.  One 


FIG.  88.— ROBINSON  INSULATOR. 

end  of  the  span  is  hung  up  with  the  insulator  on  the 
other  pole.  The  free  end  of  the  span  wire,  which  is 
attached  to  the  eye  bolt,  is  strained  up  with  a  tackle 
until  it  will  enter  the  insulator,  which  can  then  be 
turned  up  with  a  wrench  sufficiently  to  strain  the 
span  wire.  The  strength  of  these  insulators  is  said 
to  be  sufficient  to  break  a  No.  2  B.  W.  G.  span  wire 
without  injury  to  the  material,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
spans  can  be  wired  with  this  insulator  in  one-half 
the  time  usually  taken. 

The  features  of    the   Winton    insulator  are  the 
interlinking  hooks  inclosed  or  embedded  within  the 


ACCESSORIES.  371 

insulating  material,  preferably  hard  rubber,  the 
hooks  being  separated  from  each  other  by  means 
of  a  layer  of  hard  rubber  secured  between  them  and 
also  covering  the  whole  body  portion,  the  whole 
being  vulcanized  together  in  one  piece.  Each  inter- 
locking hook  is  provided  with  a  threaded  stud  pro- 
jecting from  its  extremities,  one  of  which  is  adapted 
to  receive  a  clamping  ear  and  the  other  adapted  to 
receive  interchangeable  supporting  pieces  arranged 
for  attachment  to  a  supporting  wire  or  bracket,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  principle  of  the  interlinking 
hooks  gives  the  necessary  strength  to  the  body  or 
bell  portion,  and  at  the  same  time  it  requires  only 


FIG.  89.— SPAN  "WIRE  INSULATOR. 

a  small  amount  of  a  high  grade  insulating  material 
to  make  a  perfect  insulator.  For  further  description 
accompanied  by  an  illustration  see  The  Electrical 
World,  October  24,  1891,  p.  310. 

Cross-Overs  and  Switches. — Among  the  cross- 
overs and  switches  described  may  be  mentioned  the 
following:  The  accompanying  illustration  shows 
an  adjustable  cross-over  which  may  be  adapted  to 
crossings  at  any  angle,  and  furnishes  a  smooth 
passage  and  unbroken  contact  for  the  trolley, 
whether  the  trolley  wheel  be  deep  or  shallow.  This 
is  accomplished  by  making  an  upper  flange  or  plate 


372      RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

on  each  of  the  four  arms,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  ex- 
tending a  short  distance  out  from  the  centre  at 


a  slightly  greater  incline  than  that  of  the  trolley 
rib.     The  trolley  rib  is  then  made  very  shallow  and 


ACCESSORIES. 

the  centre  post  very  small  and  short,  so  as  to  form 
no  obstruction  to  the  shallow  wheels,  the  deeper 
wheels  being  provided  for  by  the  flange  on  the 
wheel  coming  gradually  in  contact  with  the  face  of 
the  plate  on  the  arm,  which,  in  connection  with  the 
centre  plate  and  that  on  the  opposite  arm,  forms  a 
smooth  surface  over  which  the  trolley  wheel  passes. 
There  is  thus  no  arcing  or  jar  in  crossing,  whatever 
the  depth  of  the  wheel  may  be,  the  flange  of  the 
deeper  wheels  merely  reaching  the  plate  on  the  arm 
sooner  than  the  flanges  of  the  shallower  wheels. 
This  is  an  important  feature,  as  the  depths  of  the 
wheels  are  continually  varying  by  wear. 

In  many  forms  of  cross-overs  one  of  the  wires  is 
so  arranged  that  its  contact  with  the  trolley  wheel 
is  broken.  When  the  car  passes  such  a  crossing  the 
lights  will  be  momentarily  extinguished  and  the 
current  must  be  cut  off  from  the  motors  to  avoid 
an  undesirable  flash  between  the  trolley  wheel  and 
wire  when  the  break  occurs.  In  the  trolley  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration  neither  line  is  cut 
in  placing  it  on  the  lines.  It  is  a  live  crossing  and 
cars  can  be  run  over  it  at  full  speed  with  the  cur- 
rent turned  on  or  off.  The  tongue  is  of  steel  and 
very  strong,  and  of  a  peculiar  shape,  so  that  when 
it  falls  back  it  is  well  drawn  up  out  of  the  way,  and 
as  the  trolley  wheel  strikes  it  so  far  from  the  pin  on 
which  it  is  pivoted  it  has  quite  a  leverage,  and 
moves  very  easily.  The  tongue  is  brought  back  by 
gravity,  and  works  with  a  positive  motion.  They 
are  furnished,  if  necessary,  with  a  sleet  proof  cap, 
so  that  snow  and  ice  cannot  interfere  with  the 
working  of  the  tongue.  An  objection  to  it  is  that 


374     RECENT   PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

on  the  lower  line  the  trolley  can  move  in  only  one 
direction. 

In  the  inverted  switch,  shown  in  the  adjoining 
cut,  the  trolley  wheel  advancing  on  either  of  the 
diverging  lines  Automatically  throws  the  hinged 
portion  of  the  switch  over  to  the  end  of  that  line  by 
an  arrangement  of  the  arms,  such  that  the  flange  of 
the  wheel  striking  the  arm  brings  the  movable  por- 
tion of  the  switch  into  the  required  position.  The 
switch  is  made  of  only  two  pieces,  is  entirely  of 
metal,  and  the  line  passes  over  its  back  without  the 
necessity  of  any  cutting  whatever. 

Span  Wire  Tighteners. — The  following  cuts  will 


FIG.  92,— PIERCK  SWITCH. 

explain  themselves:  They  can  be  fastened  in  the 
old  way,  with  bolt,  washer  and  nut,  as  shown,  or 
by  discarding  the  bolt  entirely  and  passing  the 
span  wire  through  the  pole  to  the  rachet  fastened 
at  the  further  side.  This  latter  method  would 
appear  to  offer  decided  advantages. 

Brackets. — The  arm  of  the  Giles  bracket,  shown 
in  Fig.  95,  is  made  of  a  steel  tube,  the  truss 
rods  being  also  of  steel.  In  the  construction  of 
the  bracket  there  are  no  castings  except  at  the  ex- 
treme end,  where  a  malleable  casting  weighing 
about  three-fourths  of  a  pound  is  used.  The  upper 


ACCESSORIES.  375 

truss  rods  pass  on  either  side  the  pole,  thus  prevent- 
ing any  swaying  motion,  while  the  lower  rod  pre- 


FIG.  93.    SPAN  WIRE  TIGHTENER. 


vents  the  bracket  from  being  pressed  upward  when 
the  trolley  wheel  passes  under  it. 


FIG.  94.— SPAN  WIRE  TIGHTENER. 


The  Duggan    adjustable    trolley    wire    bracket, 
shown  in  the  cut,  is  adapted  to  be  adjusted  to  the 


376      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 


supporting  pole  whether  the  pole  be  straight  or 
crooked.  It  commends  itself  when  perfectly  straight 
poles  are  expensive  or  hard  to  obtain. 

Miscellaneous. 

Pullman  Car. — As  seen  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  this  car  has  two  decks,  and  is  designed 
to  double  the  carrying  capacity  of  street  railways, 


FIG.  95.— GILES  BRACKET. 


FIG.  96.— DUGGAN  BRACKET. 

as  well  as  adding  to  the  comfort  of  passengers.  It 
is  32  feet  long,  7  feet  and  4  inches  wide,  with  a 
height  of  14  feet  9  1-2  inches.  A  seating  capacity 
for  40  passengers  on  each  deck  is  provided  for,  the 
car  body  being  arranged  so  that  passengers  may 
enter  at  the  centre  of  either  side,  spiral  stairways 
leading  to  the  upper  deck.  Two  compartments 


ACCESSORIES. 


377 


comprise  the  lower  car  body,  each  12  feet  long,  with 
circular  ends,  the  seats  being  arranged  around  the 
ends  and  sides.  A  canopy  covers  the  top.  It  weighs 
28,000  pounds  and  cost  $3,500.  The  car  exhibited  was 
operated  by  the  trolley  system,  Westinghouse 
motors  being  used,  of  25  horse  power.  It  is 
equipped  with  electric  chandeliers  and  electric 
heaters  in  each  compartment,  the  finish  being  in 


FIG.  97.— THE  PULLMAN  CENTRE  VESTIBULE  CAR. 

mahogany,  with  a  handsomely  painted  exterior.  It 
rests  on  two  trucks  of  special  design,  having  double 
brake  attachments  and  a  friction  brake.  The  inte- 
rior conveniences  introduced  are  electric  signal 
bells  for  stopping  and  an  electric  diagram  showing 
vacant  seats.  The  services  of  three  employes  are 
necessary  in  its  operation.  It  is  thought  that  it  will 


378      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

be  adopted  by  roads  where  traffic  is  exceedingly 
heavy,  as  each  car  will  carry  250  passengers. 

Snow  Sweeper. — In  the  McLain  track  sweeper 
the  various  parts  are  so  arranged  that  the  running 
gear  and  propelling  motors  may  be  utilized  for  the 
transportation  of  passengers  during  the  summer 
season  and  for  a  sweeper  in  the  winter.  The  main 
object  had  in  view  was  to  overcome  the  difficulty 
due  to  the  defective  transmission  of  the  motive 
power  whenever  the  rotary  brushes  or  track  sweep- 
ers were  necessarily  raised  or  lowered  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  machine,  and  to  afford  ready  and  con- 
venient means  for  accompliishing  this  part  of  the 
operation.  Two  15  h.  p.  motors  are  mounted  upon  a 
truck  of  ordinary  construction  in  the  usual  manner, 
beins:  geared  with  the  axles  of  the  traction  wheels 
and  regulated  by  a  rheostat  operated  from  either 
end  of  the  machine.  The  platform  of  the  car  is 
rhomboidal  in  form,  so  that  the  two  rotary  sweep- 
ers located  at  each  end  of  the  machine  and  placed 
obliquely  to  the  track  may  be  raised  to  a  point  even 
with  or  slightly  above  the  edge  of  the  platform  if 
desired.  Upon  the  platform  are  secured  two  15  h.p. 
Thomson-Houston  motors  which  operate  their  re- 
spective brushes  independently,  each  being  regu- 
lated by  a  separate  rheostat.  The  axial  shafts  of 
these  motors  are  geared  with  their  countershafts  in 
the  usual  manner,  the  only  change  in  the  form  of 
gearing  being  in  the  substitution  of  sprocket 
wheels,  belted  with  sprocket  wheels  on  the  axles  of 
the  sweeping  brushes,  for  the  toothed  pinion  wheel 
ordinarily  gearing  with  the  toothed  wheels  of  the 
car  axles.  The  sweeping  brushes  are  of  steel  wire 


ACCESSORIES.  379 

formed  in  four  sections,  bound  together,  the  sets  of 
steel  wire  projecting  radially  at  right  angles  relative 
to  each  other.  The  device  for  raising  and  lowering 
the  sweeping  brushes  consists  of  two  screw- 
threaded  vertical  shafts  located  on  each  side  of  the 
platform,  one  of  which  is  provided  with  a  hand 
wheel,  and  each  having  a  sprocket  wheel,  about 
which  a  sprocket  chain  passes,  so  that  both  of  the 
shafts  may  be  operated  simultaneously  from  one 
point. 

These  horizontal  levers  being  pivoted  on  a  line 
with  the  countershaft  carrying  the  driving  sprocket 
wheels  permit    the    raising  and    lowering  of    the 
sweeping  brush  without  in  any  wise  slackening  the 
sprocket   chain  about  the   sprocket  wheel  on  the 
countershaft  and  the  sprocket  wheel  of  the  brush, 
thus  always  preserving  the  transmitting  chain  taut 
whatever  may  be  the  position  of  the  brush.     From 
the  centre  of  the  platform  a  vertical  mast  rises  to 
which  the  trolley  pole  is  pivoted,  a  cluster  of  lamps 
being  disposed  in  a  circle  at  its  upper  end.     Two 
horizontal  levers  are  pivoted  on  a  line  with  the 
countershaft  carrying  the   driving   sprocket  wheel, 
threaded    wrought    iron     blocks    being    provided, 
located  under  each  lever  through  which  the  vertical 
shafts  pass.     These  levers  extending  forward  are 
bent  downwardly  over  the  edge  of  the  platform 
and  constitute  the  pivots  of  the  brush.    For  an  illus- 
tration see   The  Electrical  World,  January  17,  1891, 
p.  43. 

Snow  Plow.— A  snow  plow  of  the  Eastern  Electri- 
cal Supply  Company  was  illustrated  in  The  Electri- 
cal World,  October  24,  1891,  p.  309,  and  is  designed 


380     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

with  foundations  to  accommodate  any  motor  system. 
A  V-shaped  wooden  nose  or  plow  reaching  over  the 
track  15  inches  is  attached  to  each  end,  which 
serves  to  throw  the  snow  away  on  each  side,  while 
a  leveling  wing  extends  out  4  feet,  hung  fore  and 
aft,  and  held  in  place  with  hooks.  These  wings 
are  raised  with  ropes  and  stand  up  at  the  side  of 
the  body  when  not  in  use.  To  clean  the  track  of 
snow  and  ice  four  diggers  are  applied,  made  of  2  1-2 
inch  square  Norway  iron,  with  steel  feet,  which 
are  operated  by  levers  on  the  body  of  the  plow,  with 
four  grounding  brushes. 

Snow  Cleaner  of  the  Thomson- Houston  Co. — Mr. 
Barr  of  that  company  described  their  new  cleaner 
as  follows :  "  The  machine  we  had  last  year  was  a 
brush  of  rattan  set  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  revolv- 
ing in  front  of  a  frame,  and  driven  by  a  motor  by 
means  of  sprocket  chains.  In  a  light  sugar  snow 
that  brush  gave  good  satisfaction ;  but  in  a  heavy 
wet  snow  the  brush  would  clog,  and  served  rather 
to  pack  the  snow  on  the  rail  and  make  it  solid ;  and, 
therefore,  rendered  it  impossible  for  the  wheel  to 
get  traction.  The  sprocket  chain  is  always  a  source 
of  trouble  and  annoyance.  The  lines  were  laid 
down  to  follow,  first,  to  do  away  with  the  rattan 
broom,  and  second,  to  get  a  positive  drive  for  the 
cylinder.  We  have  built  a  broom  with  steel  teeth. 
It  is  supported  from  36-inch  400-pound  wheels,  on  a 
'22a'  Bemis  box.  The  wheels  are  driven  in  the  same 
way  as  with  cars,  the  motors  being  placed  on  the 
axles.  We  are  using  single  reduction  motors  for 
them.  The  cylinder  is  set  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  to  the  track  extending  completely  across, 


ACCESSORIES.  381 

and  is  hung  from  a  rocker  shaft.  The  motor  coun- 
terbalances the  blade  of  the  broom  around  that 
shaft,  and  is  geared  directly  through  spur  gearing 
to  the  flyer.  The  main  feature  of  the  flyer  is  that  it 
has  a  series  of  blades.  The  best  description  of  it  is 
to  refer  you  to  the  paddle-wheel  of  a  steamer  only 
of  smaller  diameter,  having  the  blade  cut  at  the 
centre,  to  allow  the  spur  gearing  for  the  drivings. 
These  blades  are  of  steel  plate,  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  there  are  eight  of  them  on  each 
flyer.  To  the  back  of  the  blades  are  bolted  steel 
brushes,  the  brushes  being  made  of  flat  steel  wire, 
cutting  edgeways.  These  brushes  are  adjustable, 
and  ordinarily  their  surfaces  project  from  five- 
eights  to  one  and  one-half  inches  beyond  the  blade. 
The  blade  does  the  major  part  of  the  work.  It 
breaks  the  heavy  snow,  and  will  actually  cut  ice. 
The  steel  brush  does  the  rest  of  the  work.  It  sweeps 
the  road  clean,  and  if  allowed  to  remain  long 
enough  in  one  place,  will  cut  the  ice  as  well.  The 
motor  driving  the  broom  or  brush  is  independent  of 
the  motors  driving  the  car,  so  that  the  sweeper  can 
be  propelled  in  a  light  snow  at  a  speed  sufficient  to 
keep  it  ahead  of  any  of  the  cars  on  the  line.  If 
heavy  snow  or  ice  should  be  encountered  on  the 
track,  the  sweeper  can  be  slowed  down,  the  brush 
steel  keeping  its  normal  speed.  By  doing  this,  these 
brushes,  made  of  steel  or  wire,  will  actually  cut  the 
ice  clean  down  to  the  rail.  The  whole  thing  is  very 
novel,  but  it  has  done  good  work.  We  have  experi- 
mented some  with  a  new  machine,  somewhat 
different  from  the  old-one.  Where  the  latter  only 
had  four  blades  the  new  one  has  eight;  the  old 


382      RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

one  was  set  at  60  degrees  angle,  the  new  one  at  45; 
in  the  old  we  used  the  sprocket  chain,  in  the  pres- 


FIG.  98.— HARRINGTON  CUT-OUT. 


ent  the  spur  gearing.     We  had  a  10-h.  p.  motor  but 
now  have  a  25.     In  the  old  one  the  blade  made  80 


ACCESSORIES.  383 

turns  a  minute,  in  the  new  one  it  will  run  up  to  150 
turns  a  minute." 

Magnetic  Cut-Out. — As  a  simple  fuse  is  not  to  be 
relied  on  in  all  cases,  the  device  shown  here  is  made 
by  combining  a  magnet  with  a  fuse.  A  properly 
proportioned  magnet  is  placed  in  shunt  with  a  fuse 
which  can  carry  but  a  small  part  of  the  maximum 
safe  current.  The  resistance  of  the  magnet  being 
low,  the  fuse  is  practically  shunted  out  until  the 
current  through  the  magnet  becomes  too  great. 
Then  the  armature  is  drawn  up,  and  the  whole  cur- 
rent is  sent  through  the  small  fuse,  which  is  sure  to 
blow.  A  spring  catch  holds  the  armature  until  the 
fuse  is  replaced,  which  can  be  quickly  done  without 
the  use  of  any  tools.  The  magnet  is  protected  from 
the  molten  metal  by  a  thick  sheet  of  asbestos. 

Car  Lightning  Arrester. — The  one  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration,  consists  of  two  air 
chambers,  having  vents  through  which  a  curved 
carbon,  hinged  at  its  centre  of  curvature  can  freely 
pass.  The  carbon  point  in  the  chamber  should  be 
set  so  that  it  is  separated  from  the  curved  carbon 
when  in  its  normal  position  by  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch.  The  distance  between,  the  two  carbons 
should  likewise  be  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  when 
the  curved  carbon  is  in  the  other  chamber. 
A  lead  fuse,  and  an  insulating  block,  with  a  slot 
through  which  the  lead  fuse  is  passed,  are  provided. 
Connections  to  the  motor  and  trolley  are  made  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  action  of  the  arrester  is 
as  follows :  When  a  discharge  takes  place  it  passes 
through  the  lead  fuse  to  one  of  the  carbons,  then 
across  the  air  space  to  the  curved  carbon  and  from 


384     RECENT    PROGRESS  IN  ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

there  to  the  ground,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The 
dynamo  current  then  following  causes  an  arc  to  be 
established  between  the  carbons.  The  heat  gen- 
erated by  this  arc  expands  the  air  in  the  chamber, 
increasing  the  air  pressure,  and  causes  the  curved 
carbon  to  be  instantly  blown  from  one  chamber  to 
the  other.  This  ruptures  the  arc  and  adjusts  the 
arrester  for  the  next  discharge.  In  the  reported 
tests  upon  this  arrester,  500-volt  and  1,000-volt  gen- 


FIG.  99.—  WESTINGHOUSE  CAR  LIGHTNING  ARRESTER. 

erators  have  been  repeatedly  short-circuited  through 
it.  In  every  case  the  circuit  has  been  instantly 
broken  without  injury  to  the  dynamo,  and  the 
arrester  has  as  quickly  set  itself  in  readiness  for 
future  use.  In  one  of  the  tests  made  to  demonstrate 
its  promptness  and  reliability,  the  carbons  in  the 
chambers  were  so  adjusted  as  to  touch  the  curved 
carbon  in  either  of  its  two  normal  positions.  A  1,000- 
volt  generator  was  then  short-circuited  through  the 
arrester,  which  resulted  in  the  circuit  being  sev- 


ACCESSORIES. 


385 


eral  times  automatically 
opened  and  closed  in  one 
second  without  injury 
to  either  dynamo  or  ar- 
rester. 

Safety  Devices  for 
Electric  Wires.— T  h  e 
Electric  Wire  Safety 
Attachment  Company's 
safety  device  shown  in 
the  adjoining  cut  has 
for  its  object  the  ren- 
dering harmless  of  a 
broken  line  wire.  The 
plate  to  which  the  end 
of  the  wire  is  attached 
is  inserted  in  the  slide 
at  the  end  of  the  wire 
projecting  from  the  tie 
or  supporting  wire, 
which  is  slotted  to  re- 
ceive it,  thus  forming 
the  connection  and  hold- 
ing it  in  position  unless 
the  wire  should  break. 
In  this  case  the  springs 
would  draw  this  plate 
out  and  away  from  the 
other,  allowing  the  trol- 
ley wire  to  drop  down, 
thus  breaking  the  con- 
nection and  rendering 
the  broken  wire  per- 


386      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

fectly  harmless  until  it  could  be  repaired.  An  ad- 
vantage claimed  is  the  facility  of  attachment,  as 
the  springs  may  be  put  in  place  and  removed  if 
necessary  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the 
line. 

Sand  Distributor.— The  trouble  which  has  been 
experienced  in  the  ordinary  forms  of  distributors 
is  the  clogging  of  the  sand  in  the  narrow  neck  of 


FIG.  101.— BATES  SAND  DISTRIBUTOR. 

the  containing  bag.  To  overcome  this,  a  corrugated 
metallic  ribbon  is  in  the  form  shown  made  to  ex- 
tend from  the  opening,  up  through  the  sand,  the 
slightest  jar  being  sufficient  to  keep  the  sand  from 
becoming  fast  in  the  neck. 

Speed  Recorder. — The  principal  parts  of  this  in- 
strument are  a  rotary  pump,  a  cylinder  and  piston. 
Oil  is  used  as  a  circulating  medium,  the  pump 


ACCESSORIES. 


387 


chambers  and  cylinders  being  entirely  filled.  While 
the  machine  is  at  rest,  the  piston,  to  which  the 
gauge-wire  and  pencil  are  attached,  is  retained  in 
its  lowest  position  by  two  coil  springs ;  but  when 
given  motion  the  pump  produces  a  pressure  of  oil 
beneath  the  piston,  causing  it  to  rise  to  a  position 
where  an  equilibrium  is  established  between  the 


FIG.  102.  -BOYKR  RAILWAY  SPEED  RECORDER. 

pressure  of  oil  and  the  tension  of  the  springs ;  this 
point  is  determined  by  the  speed  at  which  the  pump 
is  moved,  each  thirty-second  of  an  inch  rise  of  the 
piston  indicating  a  speed  of  one  mile  per  hour. 
Moving  around  a  drum  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
machine  at  the  rate  of  one-half  inch  to  the  mile  is  a 
ribbon  of  paper,  having  horizontal  and  perpendicu- 


388      RECENT    PROGRESS   IN   ELECTRIC   RAILWAYS. 

lar  lines,  each  horizontal  line  from  the  base  repre- 
senting five  miles  per  hour,  and  each  perpendicular 
line  a  mile  traveled  by  the  car.  If  the  car  is  moving 
at  the  rate  of  20  miles  per  hour,  the  pencil  will  trace 
its  mark  on  the  fourth  line  from  the  base,  and  for 
every  mile  traveled  the  paper  will  move  under  the 
pencil  one-half  inch,  or  the  exact  distance  from  one 
perpendicular  line  to  another.  By  examining  the 
chart  the  exact  speed  at  which  the  car  passes  any 
point  on  the  road,  the  number  and  location  of  stops, 


FIG.  103.— DUGGAN'S  RAIL  CHAIR. 

the  distance,  speed  and  location  of  any  backward 
movement  that  may  have  been  made,  can  be  deter- 
mined at  a  glance.  A  gauge  is  provided,  the  needle 
of  which  indicates  the  speed  at  any  given  time.  The 
pencil  is  a  brass  wire,  and  when  in  good  condition 
makes  a  distinct  line  on  the  prepared  surface  of  the 
paper.  It  is  held  by  friction  and  is  forced  against 
the  Daper  on  which  the  record  is  made  by  a  spring 
within  the  holder. 


ACCESSORIES.  389 

Rail  Chair.— In  the  railway  chair,  shown  in  the 
illustration,  there  are  no  bolts,  rivets  or  wedges 
used.  Paving  blocks  may  be  laid  close  to  the  rail, 
and  the  rail  may  be  removed  at  any  time  without 
drawing  the  spikes  or  changing  the  position  of  the 
chair. 

Connector  for  Street  Car  Lighting  Circuits. — In 
the  accompanying  illustration  of  the  Armstrong 
connector  for  the  lighting  circuits  of  motor  and 
town  cars  on  electric  railways,  the  two  parts  are 


FIG.  104.— CONNECTOR  FOR  STREET  CAR  LIGHTING  CIRCUITS. 

interchangeable,  and  the  projecting  metal  tips  are 
in  circuit  only  when  the  two  parts  are  slipped 
together ;  when  the  parts  are  separated  these  ends 
are  dead  and  may  be  handled  with  safety,  even  in 
wet  weather.  The  end  of  each  conducting  cord  is 
soldered  into  a  brass  tube,  and  a  knot  in  the  cord 
takes  the  strain  off  this  joint.  The  contact  surfaces 
are  large,  and  a  stiff  spring  insures  a  quick  make 
and  break.  The  insulating  bushings,  as  well  as  the 
shell,  are  made  of  hard  rubber.  The  whole  connec- 
tor is  not  much  larger  than  the  illustration. 


IF  YOU  WISH  TO  KNOW 

The  latest  and  best  work  or  works  on  the  principles  and 
theory  of  Electricity,  or  relating  to  any  particular  ap- 
plication of  Electricity,  The  Electrical  World  will  be 
pleased  to  promptly  furnish  the  information,  personally 
or  by  letter,  free  of  charge.  If  you  live  in  or  near  New 
York,  and  would  like  to  examine  any  electrical  books, 
you  are  cordially  invited  to  visit  the  office  of  The 
Electrical  World  and  look  them  over  at  your  leisure. 

Making  a  specialty  of  Electrical  Books,  there  is  no 
work  relating  directly  or  indirectly  to  Electricity  that 
is  not  either  published  or  for  sale  by  The  Johnston 
Company,  and  the  manager  of  the  Book  Department 
keeps  himself  at  all  times  familiar  with  the  contents  of 
every  work  issued  on  this  subject  at  home  and  abroad. 

Any  Electrical  Book  in  this  catalogue,  or  any  elec- 
trical book  published,  American  or  foreign,  will  be 
promptly  mailed  to  ANY  ADDRESS  in  the  world, 
POSTAGE  PREPAID,  on  receipt  of  the  price.  Ad- 
dress and  make  drafts,  P.  O.  orders,  etc.,  payable  to 

THE  I.  J,  JOHNSTON  COMPOY,  La. 

TIMES  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK. 


SECOND    EDITION. 


Revised.          Enlarged.          Entirely    Rewritten. 


HOUSTON'S  DICTIIIIIT 

OP 

Electrical  Words,  Terms  and  Phrases. 

562  Pages.       570  Illustrations.       Price,  $5.00. 

The  plan  of  the  Dictionary  is  such  as  to  bring 
it  within  the  range  of  the  entire  community. 

To  electricians  and  electrical  engineers,  and 
to  the  superintendents  and  others  at  the  head 
of  the  great  electrical  industries  of  the  country, 
it  ought  to  prove  literally  worth  its  weight  in 
gold  as  a  handy  book  of  ready  reference. 

To  the  editor  or  journalist;  to  the  intelligent 
reader  of  scientific  periodicals,  as  well  as  of 
the  newspapers  and  magazines;  to  the  school 
teacher,  the  college  professor,  the  lawyer,  the 
doctor,  the  professional  man  generally,  it  will 
be  a  place  where  he  can  satisfactorily  find  the 
proper  meaning  of  electrical  terms. 

To  students  of  general  electricity  the  book 
will  be  necessary  as  supplying  what  no  other 
dictionary  in  the  English  language  has  hither- 
to attempted  to  define.  To  students  in  col- 
leges or  schools  it  will  be  indispensable  as  a 
labor  saver,  enabling  them  to  find  in  concise 


form  the  general  heads  under  which  electrical 
terms  are  arranged. 

To  manufacturers,  contractors,  engineers ; 
to  the  army  of  electrical  linemen,  operatives 
in  electrical  manufactories,  runners  of  dyna- 
mos, drivers  of  motors  and  electrical  tram- 
ways, and  to  the  hosts  connected  with  tele- 
phony and  telegraphy,  both  as  operators  and 
in  construction  work,  to  the  numerous  manu- 
facturers and  constructors  of  hotel  annuncia- 
tors, burglar  alarms,  electro-plating  devices 
and  the  like,  the  book,  we  feel  confident,  will 
prove  invaluable  as  enabling  them  to  find  ex- 
pressed in  plain  and  simple  language  the  exact 
meaning  of  the  terms  they  so  frequently  em- 
ploy and  how  they  should  be  used. 

And  last,  but  not  least,  in  this  Electrical  Age 
the  Dictionary  is  positively  an  actual  necessity 
to  the  general  public,  to  enable  them  intelli- 
gently to  use  their  mother  tongue,  which  is 
now  becoming  thoroughly  imbued  with  elec- 
trical words,  terms  and  phrases,  with  which 
they  constantly  come  in  contact  in  conversa- 
tion respecting  the  lighting  of  their  streets, 
houses  and  factories,  the  driving  of  their 
system  of  cars,  the  operation  of  telephone  and 
telegraph  lines,  the  protection  of  their  houses 
by  burglar  alarms,  the  regulation  of  house 
temperature  by  thermostats,  the  adornment  of 
their  homes  by  electro-metallurgical  process 
and  the  many  other  of  hundreds  of  ways  in 
which  electricity  has  been  made  useful  to  man. 


Some  idea  of  the  scope  of  the  work  and  of 
the  immense  amount  of  labor  involved  in  it 
may  be  formed  when  it  is  stated  that  the  dic- 
tionary includes  upward  of  5,000  distinct 
words,  terms  or  phrases.  Each  of  the  great 
classes  or  divisions  of  electrical  investigation  or 
utilization  comes  under  careful  and  exhaustive 
treatment,  and  while  close  attention  is  given 
to  the  more  settled  and  hackneyed  phraseology 
of  the  older  branches  of  work,  the  newer  words 
and  the  novel  departments  they  belong  to  are 
not  less  thoroughly  handled.  Every  source  of 
information  has  been  referred  to,  and  while 
libraries  have  been  ransacked,  the  note-book  of 
the  laboratory  and  the  catalogue  of  the  ware- 
room  have  not  been  forgotten  or  neglected.  So 
far  has  the  work  been  carried  in  respect  to  the 
policy  of  inclusion,  that  the  book  has  been 
brought  down  to  date  by  means  of  an  appendix, 
in  which  are  placed  the  very  newest  words,  as 
well  as  many  whose  rareness  of  use  had  con- 
signed them  to  obscurity  and  oblivion. 

The  scheme  of  treatment  is  as  follows  : 

1st.  The  words,  terms,  and  phrases  are  in- 
variably followed  by  a  short,  concise  definition, 
giving  the  sense  in  which  they  are  correctly 
employed. 

3d.  A  general  statement  then  follows  of  the 
principles  of  electrical  science  on  which  the 
definition  is  founded. 

8d.  When,  from  the  complexity  of  the  ap- 
paratus, or  from  other  considerations,  it  has 
been  thought  desirable  to  do  so,  an  illustration 
or  diagram  of  the  apparatus  is  given. 


4th.  To  facilitate  study,  an  elaborate  system 
of  cross  references  has  been  adopted,  so  that  it 
is  as  easy  to  find  the  definitions,  as  the  words, 
and  aliases  are  readily  detected  and  traced. 

In  applying  these  rules  great  care  has  been 
exercised  to  secure  clearness,  to  the  end  that 
while  the  definitions  and  explanations  shall  be. 
satisfactory  to  the  expert  electrician,  they  shall 
also  be  simple  and  intelligible  to  those  who  have 
had  no  training  at  all  in  electricity  or  are  no- 
vices in  the  art.  This  is  work  of  some  dif- 
ficulty, but  Professor  Houston  has  successfully 
achieved  his  purpose.  No  one  will  regret  the 
detail  into  which  he  goes,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  so  many  of  his  defini- 
tions are  new,  and  are  not  to  be  found  else- 
where, in  any  form,  every  one  will  be  glad  that 
the  latest  terms  in  vogue  in  the  most  recent  ap- 
plications come  in  for  elaborate,  yet "  popular,'1 
treatment 

The  dictionary  is  a  handsome  book.  The 
typography  is  excellent,  being  large  and  bold, 
and  so  arranged  that  each  word  catches  tb<» 
eye  at  once  by  standing  out  in  sharp  relief 
from  the  page.  The  volume  is  convenient  in 
size,  and  the  binding  and  paper  are  perfect. 
In  a  word,  the  mechanical  production  of  the 
book  has  been  given  special  attention,  and  no 
cost  has  been  spared  ;  but  it  is  placed  within 
the  means  of  all  who  have  an  interest  in  a 
great,  new  and  fascinating  department  of 
modern  knowledge  and  discovery. 


What  is  Said  of  the  Dictionary, 

The  generally-recognized  necessity  that  has 
existed  for  a  book  defining  electrical  terms  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  great  sale  the  Dictionary 
has  enjoyed  from  the  very  first,  and  which  it 
still  continues  to  enjoy,  while  the  enthusiastic 
words  of  praise  regarding  it  from  purchasers 
and  from  newspapers  and  scientific  journals  of 
every  class,  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the 
other,  and  the  unanimity  with  which  ther 
recommend  it,  demonstrate  beyond  peradven- 
ture  how  satisfactory  the  work  proves  on  ex- 
amination and,  therefore,  its  great  value  to  all 
in  any  way  interested— and  who,  nowadays,  is 
not? — in  electrical  progress  and  development. 

The  following  opinions,  selected  almost  at 
random  from  among  hundreds  received,  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  views  expressed  : 

It  is  just  what  I  need;  it  fills  the  bill. 

J.  H.  HARDING,  La  Porte,  Ind. 
Invaluable  to  those  interested  in  electricity. 

A.  C.  TERRY,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

It  is  an  excellent  work  and  very  complete,  and  one 
that  ought  to  be  in  every  library. 

E.  W.  KITTREDGE,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Interesting  and  instructive  even  to  those  only  re- 
motely interested  in  electrical  subjects. 

GEO.  B.  PRESCOTT,  JR.,  New  York. 
Houston's  Dictionary  is  the  most  valuable  of  any 
single  book  belonging  to  the  literature  of  electricity. 
L.  R.  CURTISS,  Mendota,  111. 


Fills  a  very  large  gap  that  previously  existed  in 
electrical  literature.  A .  E.  KENNELLY, 

Edison  Laboratory. 

Involved  a  vast  amount  of  labor,  and  the  work  has 
been  well  done.  It  ought  to  be  of  much  use  to  a  very 
large  class  of  men  engaged  in  electrical  pursuits. 

H.  S.  CARHART,  Prof,  of  Physics,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

The  first  impression  is  one  of  satisfaction,  and  this 
grows  with  further  examination.  .Must  prove  valu- 
able both  to  the  professional  man  and  the  general 
reader.  GEORGE  A.  HAMILTON,  New  York. 

The  book  is  one  that  every  man  engaged  in  elec- 
trical work  should  have  on  his  desk  or  in  his  library. 
I  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  it,  and  shall  certainly 
recommend  it  among  my  friends. 

JOHN  INGALLS  CARMICHAEL,  E.  E.,  *' 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 

I  desire  to  congratulate  you  upon  the  publication  of 
an  Electrical  Dictionary.  A  reference  book  of  this 
kind  is  of  great  importance,  and  your  Dictionary  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  electrical 
literature.  The  work  shows  that  great  care  has  been 
bestowed  upon  it.  It  is  accurate,  and  must  be  of  the 
greatest  value  to  every  one  interested  in  electrical 
matters,  particularly  to  the  student  of  electricity. 
S.  S.  WHEELER,  Expert,  Board  of  Elec.  Control,  N.  Y. 

It  is  not  simply  a  classification  of  subjects  and 
terms  culled  from  other  sources  in  a  haphazard 
manner,  but  the  entire  work  bears  throughout  the 
impress  of  rare  judgment,  discernment  and  high 
scientific  intelligence,  and  the  latest  developments  of 
electrical  science  are  briefly  and  admirably  presented, 
It  is  multum  in  parvo,  and  will  prove  an  invaluable 
reference  book  to  both  students  and  professionals. 

F.  W.  JONES,  General  Manager  and  Electrician  the 
Postal  Telegraph  and  Cable  Co.,  New  York. 


Press  Opinions, 


The  following  are  only  a  few  of  the  many 
nattering  notices  of  the  Dictionary  that  have 
appeared,  but  they  are  fair  samples  : 

Engineering  News. 
A  valuable  and  convenient  work  of  reference. 

London  Electrical  Review. 

The  name  of  the  author  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of 
the  excellence  of  the  work. 

Light,  Heat  and  Power. 

Professor  Houston,  being  an  electrician  of  promi- 
nence, is  peculiarly  well  fitted  for  his  task. 

Practical  Electricity. 

By  far  the  most  useful  book  ever  printed  on  this 
continent  for  the  benefit  of  electrical  students. 

Age  of  Steel. 

In  view  of  the  wonderful  expansion  of  the  electri- 
cal industry,  this  new  work  is  almost  indispensable. 

San  Francisco  Chronicle. 

Virtually  a  condensed  encyclopedia.  It  fills  a  new 
field,  and  may  be  Warmly  commended  for  its  fullness, 
accuracy  and  good  arrangement  for  ready  reference. 

Indianapolis  Journal. 

The  book  contains  all  the  technical  terms  and 
phrases  now  used  by  electrical  scientists  and  invent- 
ors, with  definitions  and  applications.  It  might  be 
called  an  electrical  cyclopedia. 

Philadelphia  Times. 

In  this  age  of  common  and  almost  universal  use  of 
electricity,  a  dictionary  of  electrical  terminology  be- 
comes a  necessity.  Professor  Houston's  work  is  very 
carefully  prepared,  and  it  will  be  found  useful  both 
by  electricians  and  the  general  public. 


FIRST   BOOK    ON   ELEOTEIO  RAILWAYS. 


THE    ELECTRIC   RAILWAY 

IN    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE. 


By  O.  T.  CROSBT  and  Dr.  Louis  BELL. 

This  timely  book,  just  issued,  treats  all 
departments  of  the  Electric  Railway  of  the 
present  day  as  comprehensively  as  is  practi- 
cable in  a  volume  of  reasonable  size. 

The  illustrations  have  been  prepared  espec- 
ially for  it,  and  many  of  them  will  prove 
entirely  new  to  the  electrical  public. 

The  intent  of  the  work  is  to  place  before  all 
who  are  interested  in  the  subject  of  electrical 
traction  —  whether  electrically,  financially,  or 
simply  in  a  general  way — an  explanation  of  the 
general  principles  and  methods  which  have  led 
to  the  model  electric  railway,  and  the  latest 
information  as  to  the  methods  that  have  proved 
and  are  proving  successful  in  practice.  At  the 
beginning  the  rudiments  of  general  electrical 
theory  are  explained  in  a  manner  as  simple  as 
possible,  and  the  reader  is  led  on  to  the  com- 
prehension of  the  principles  that  underlie  the 
design,  construction  and  operation  of  the  elec- 
.tric  motor,  especially  the  form  which  is  used 
for  the  propulsion  of  street  cars.  Having  con- 
sidered the  motor  in  general,  the  next  topic  to 
engage  the  reader's  attention  is  the  ultimate 


source  of  the  power  which  is  utilized  in  the 
motor ;  in  other  words,  the  mechanism  by 
which  the  operating  machinery  is  driven  — 
engines,  water-wheels,  and  the  like. 
^Having  thus  obtained  a  general  view  both  of 
the  electrical  transmission  of  energy  and  the 
generation  of  mechanical  energy  from  natural 
sources,  the  treatise  goes  on  to  take  up  more  in 
detail  the  principles  of  electric  railroading. 

Then  the  subject  of  street  car  motors  proper, 
considered  both  electrically  and  in  their  relation 
to  the  mechanical  problems  that  have  to  be  met, 
is  taken  up  at  considerable  length,  and  a  series 
of  working  instructions  is  given  for  the  proper 
care  of  such  apparatus.  The  line  that  furnishes 
power  to  the  moving  motors  is  the  next  subject 
for  consideration,  and  the  principles  of  the 
electrical  transmission  of  energy — so  far  as  the 
working  conductors  are  concerned — are  fully 
set  forth,  together  with  various  details  of  the 
applications  of  these  principles  to  every-day 
electric  roads  and  suggestions  for  their  proper 
equipment.  Here,  too,  properly  should  be 
mentioned  a  complete  set  of  rules  for  the  erec- 
tion of  overhead  lines,  fully  illustrated  with 
diagrams  and  cuts  of  the  apparatus.  Following 
this  the  design,  arrangement  and  proportioning 
of  power  stations  to  fulfill  any  required  con- 
ditions is  taken  up,  and  in  connection  with  this 
a  considerable  amount  of  instruction  is  given 
concerning  the  practical  operation  of  the 
dynamo,  particularly  with  reference  to  the 
accidents  that  are  likely  to  befall  it  and  the 
ways  of  remedying  them. 

The  general  consideration  of  the  subject  is 


then  completed  by  an  exhaustive  chapter  on 
the  efficiency  of  electric  traction,  both  with 
reference  to  what  has  already  been  accomplished 
and  to  the  lines  of  possible  improvement  for  the 
future.  Next  in  order  come  chapters  treating 
of  the  use  of  the  storage  battery  in  connection 
with  electric  traction  as  a  separate  problem,  the 
underground  conduit  and  its  various  modifi- 
cations, together  with  telpherage  and  similar 
unfamiliar  applications  of  electricity. 

Chapter  X,  is  one  that  should  be  especially 
commended  to  all  who  are  interested  in  engineer- 
ing problems  having  for  their  objective  point 
the  facilitating  of  rapid  transit.  It  is  a  dis- 
cussion as  exhaustive  as  the  state  of  the  art 
permits  on  the  application  of  the  electric  motor 
to  regular  railroad  work,  substituting  for  the 
ordinary  locomotive  a  simpler,  more  efficient, 
and  more  manageable  apparatus  in  the  electric 
motor.  Following  this  is  a  chapter  which 
should  be  very  useful  to  those  who  are  operating 
or  intend  to  operate  electric  railroads.  It  is  a 
treatment  of  the  commercial  side  of  the  prob- 
lem, cost  of  installation  and  operation,  the 
probabilities  of  a  paying  traffic,  and  the 
financial  aspect  of  the  question  generally. 

Finally,  the  volume  closes  with  a  brief  resume 
of  the  history  of  electric  traction  from  the 
invention  of  the  electric  motor  up  to  the  period 
of  development  in  which  we  are  living  to-day. 


PRESS   COMMENTS   ON 


In  Theory  and   Practice. 


Street  Railway  Journal. 

We  are  often  asked  by  our  readers  for  some  work  from 
which  they  can  learn  the  cost  and  details  of  construction 
and  operation  of  electric  street  railways.  We  take  pleasure 
in  referring  them  to  "  The  Electric  Railway  in  Theory  and 
Practice,"  by  O.  T.  Crosby  and  Dr.  Louis  Bell.  No  one 
interested  in  the  operation  of  an  electric  line,  and  no  one 
who  contemplates  adopting  this  method  of  traction  can 
afford  to  be  without  this  work. 

Electrical  Engineer. 

This  work,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  is  the  most 
valuable,  on  the  lines  which  the  authors  have  taken  up 
which  has  thus  far  appeared.  We  can  go  further  and  eay 
that  every  electric  railway  engineer  and  street  railway 
manager  will  find  in  it  many  suggestions  which  may  lead 
to  increased  economy  in  the  operation  of  a  road,  while  to 
the  student  the  practical  discussion  of  the  principles 
involved  will  be  of  the  utmost  interest. 

Electric  Power. 

The  opening  chapter  on  "  General  Electric  Theory  "  is 
especially  valuable  to  the  street  railway  manager  who 
wishes  to  gain  some  knowledge  of  "  how  the  wheels  go 
round  "  without  taking  a  full  course  of  electrical  engineer- 
ing. It  is  brief  and  simple  yet  comprehensive.  A  similar 
chapter  on  "Prime  Movers"  is  equally  valuable  in  its 
explanation  of  the  merits  of  the  leading  types  of  steam 
engines  and  water  wheels.  *  *  *  We  conscientiously 
recommend  the  work  as  one  of  the  highest  grade.  Nor 
should  the  mechanical  make-up  of  the  book  be  overlooked. 
The  cuts  are  especially  clear  and  were  made  to  fit  the  book, 
rather  than  suiting  the  book  to  the  cuts,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case  in  such  publications.  In  every  respect  the  book  is 
alike  creditable  to  authors  and  publishers,  and  its  advent 
may  be  considered  as  adding  much  to  the  prestige  of  the 
electric  railway  as  it  is  to-day. 


Street  Railway  News. 

The  work  presents  both  the  elementary  theory  of  elec- 
trical trrdion  and  the  general  features  of  the  best  practice, 
describing  in  detail  particular  methods  and  forms  of  car 
machinery  only  so  far  as  they  are  of  importance  in  illus- 
trating the  broader  principles  on  which  they  depend  *  *  * 
The  electric  railroad  at  the  present  time  is  attracting  more 
attention  than  any  other  branch  of  the  electrical  industry, 
and  this  book  appears  at  a  time  when  all  the  information 
possible  on  the  subject  is  being  sought  after. 

Scientific  American. 

With  nearly  150  illustrations  this  book  is  a  very  good 
contribution  to  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of 
electrical  engineering.  What  the  railroad  of  the  future 
will  be,and  what  part  electricity  will  play  in  its  development 
is  altogether  conjectural.  This  book  tells  what  the  aspect 
of  the  subject  is  to-day.  The  subjects  of  prime  motors, 
electric  motors,  and  car  equipments,  the  line  track  and 
station  economy,  storage  battery  traction,  high  speed 
service,  and  commercial  considerations  are  typical  subjects. 
In  the  five  appendices  considerable  useful  information  is 
given,  notably  a  section  on  lightning  protection,  by 
Professor  Elihu  Thomson. 

Street  Railway  Gazette. 

Every  now  and  then  there  appears  among  the  literature 
of  every  industry  some  work  that  can  be  considered  a 
standard.  Only  once,  however,  comes  a  work  that  can  be 
called  the  standard  on  the  subject  treated.  Of  such  a  nature 
is  the  work  of  Oscar  T.  Crosby  and  Dr.  Louis  Bell,  entitled 
"The  Electric  Railway  in  Theory  and  Practice,"  published 
by  the  W.  J.  Johnston  Company,  Limited,  Times  Building, 
New  York.  *  *  *  The  thorough  scientific  knowledge 
of  Dr.  Bell  is  very  happily  blended  with  Mr.  Crosby's 
equally  thorough  practical  knowledge  of  the  same  subject. 
It  is  highly  scientific  without  being  scientific,  that  is,  it  is 
perfect  science  treated  in  a  way  to  be  clearly  understood 
without  further  and  more  painstaking  study. 

Railroad  Gazette. 

This  eminently  practical  treatise  on  the  methods  of 
operation  and  construction  of  electric  railroads  and  their 
equipment  is  a  real  addition  to  the  literature  of  the  subject. 


No  other  work  gives  much  that  is  of  practical  use  to  the 
operating  officers  and  the  mechanics  of  such  railroads. 

The  chapter  on  motors  and  equipment  contains  general 
instructions  as  to  the  care  of  motors  and  their  operation 
which  are  well  prepared  and  are  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
work.  Anyone  reading  this  chapter  can,  from  it,  become 
comparatively  well  informed  upon  the  purpose  and  con- 
struction of  the  mechanism  which  has  directly  to  do  with 
the  starting  and  stopping  of  cars. 

The  cuts  showing  the  characteristics  of  the  winding 
on  the  different  kinds  of  dynamos  and  motors  are  excep- 
tionally explicit,  and  the  meaning  of  the  words  "series" 
and  "  multiple,"  BO  confusing  to  the  layman,  are  explained 
in  such  a  simple  way,  on  page  15,  that  no  one  could  fail  to 
understand  them.  There  are  some  general  deductions 
about  electricity  which  have  been  drawn  from  complex 
experiments  that  are  so  complex  when  expressed  in  words 
that  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  the  beginner  to  understand 
them,  yet  in  this  work  they  are  clearly  shown  by  diagrams 
and  curves,  and  so  well  lettered  and  arranged  that  they  are 
easily  comprehended.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
varying  efficiences  of  motors  under  different  conditions 
with  different  amounts  of  current  and  running  at  different 
speeds.  So,  too,  with  the  magnetic  properties  of  various 
kinds  of  iron  and  steel.  The  diagram  for  this  last  shows 
forcibly  the  great  value  of  soft  annealed  irons  for  the  field 
magnets  and  armatures  of  electric  motors  of  light  weight. 

The  part  of  this  work  which  is  of  most  direct  interest 
to  the  capitalist  and  the  investor  in  street  railroad  stocks 
is  that  on  the  efficiency  of  electric  traction.  Diagrams  are 
given  showing  the  efficiency  of  the  dynamo  itself  under  a 
varying  load,  of  the  plant  as  a  whole,  and  of  motors  com- 
bined with  the  plant. 


"THE   ELECTRIC   RAILWAY"    or  any 
other  Electrical  or  Street  Railway  Book  pub- 
lished, will  be  mailed  to  any  address  in  the 
world,  postage  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  price. 
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ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM 

A  Series  of  Advanced  Primers, 

By  Prof.  EDWIN  J.  HOUSTON, 

AUTHOR  OF 

"A  Dictionary  of  Electrical  Words,  Terms  and  Phrases." 
Cloth.    225  pages,  128  illustrations.    Price,  $1.00. 


Prof.  Houston's  Primers  of  Electricity  written  in 
1884  enjoyed  a  wide  circulation,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  Europe,  and  for  some  time  have  been  out 
of  print.  Owing  to  the  great  progress  in  electricity  since 
that  date  the  author  has  been  led  to  prepare  an  entirely 
new  series  of  primers,  but  of  a  more  advanced  charac- 
ter in  consonance  with  the  advanced  general  knowl- 
edge of  electricity. 

Electricians  will  find  these  primers  of  marked  inter- 
est from  their  lucid  explanations  of  principles,  and  the 
general  public  will  in  them  find  an  easily  read  and 
agreeable  introduction  to  a  fascinating  subject. 

CONTENTS. 

I. — Effects  of  Electric  Charge.  II.— Insulators  and 
Conductors.  III. — Effects  of  an  Electric  Discharge. 
IV. — Electric  Sources.  V.— Electro-receptive  Devices. 
VI  —Electric  Current.  VII.— Electric  Units.  VIII. 
—Electric  Work  and  Power.  IX.— Varieties  of  Elec- 
tric Circuits.  X. — Magnetism.  XL — Magnetic  Induc- 
tion. XII. — Theories  of  Magnetism.  XIII. — Phenom- 
ena of  the  Earth's  Magnetism.  XIV, — Electro-Mag- 
nets. XV- — Electrostatic  Induction.  XVI. — Frictional 
and  Influence  Machines.  XVII. — Atmospheric  Elec- 
tricity. XVIII.— Voltaic  Cells.  XIX.— Review,  Prim- 
er of  Primers. 

PUBLISHED  AND  FOR  SALE  BY 

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THE  ELECTRIC  MOTOR 

AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS. 


By  T.  C.  Martin  and  Joseph  Wetzler,  with  an 

appendix  bringing  the  book  down  to 

date  by  Dr,  Louis  Bell. 


This  timely  work  is  the  first  American  Book  on 
Electric  Motors,  and  the  only  book  in  any  lan- 
guage dealing  exclusively  and  fully  with  the 
modern  Electric  Motor  in  all  its  various  practical 
applications.  The  book  is  a  handsome  quarto, 
the  page  being  of  the  same  size  as  Dredge's  large 
work  on  "Electric  Illumination,"  and  many  of 
the  cuts  are  full  page. 

No  effort  has  been  spared  to  make  the  book 
complete  to  date,  and  it  will  prove  invaluable  to 
every  one  interested  in  the  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Electric  Motor  or  the  Electrical 
Transmission  of  Energy 

Copies  of  the  above,  or  of  any  electrical  book  published,  will 
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AN    IMPORTANT    NEW   BOOK. 


ALTERNATING   CURRENTS 

TREATED  ANALYTICALLY  AND   ALSO 
TREATED  GRAPHICALLY. 

BY 

FP^EDEPJCI^    BEDEIiIi,   Ph.D.,   and 
R.  C.  Ct^EfiO^E,  Ph.D.,  (Cornell  Univ.) 


Uniform  with  "the  Electric  Railway"  by  Crosby  and  Bell. 


Cloth.     250  pages  and  112  illustrations.    Price,  $2.60. 


While  there  are  many  monographs  and  special  treatises  on 
alternating  currents,  they  are  either  fragmentary  or  special  in 
character,  or  couched  in  mathematical  language  requiring  a 
special  mathematical  education  to  interpret. 

In  this  volume  the  theory  of  alternating  currents  is,  for  the 
first  time,  treated  in  a  connected  and  logical  manner,  and  in 
mathematical  language  familiar  to  the  ordinary  mathematical 
public,  while  the  graphical  extension  can  be  followed  by  those 
not  having  a  special  knowledge  of  mathematics. 

Some  parts  of  this  volume  have  been  published  in  separate 
papers,  and  from  the  cordial  welcome  they  received,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  present  work  will  fill  a  distinct  want  in  an  im- 
portant branch  of  electrical  science. 


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OF 

STATIC  ELECTRICITY, 

'WITH  FULL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HOLTZ  AND  TOPLER 
MACHINES  AND  THEIR  MODE  OF  OPERATION. 

By   PHILIP    ATKINSON,   A.M.,    Ph.D. 

Cloth,  12mo;  228  Pages;  64  Illustrations. 

:F»:R.IO:E],  S1.SO., 

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The  author  of  this  treatise  has  made  a  special  study 
of  Static  Electricity,  and  is  an  acknowledged  master 
of  the  subject.  The  book  embodies  the  result  of 
much  original  investigation  and  experiment,  which 
Dr.  Atkinson's  long  experience  as  a  teacher  enables 
him  to  describe  in  clear  and  interesting  language, 
devoid  of  technicalities. 

The  principles  of  electricity  are  presented  untram- 
meled,  as  far  as  possible,  by  mathematical  formulae, 
so  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  large  class  who 
have  not  the  time  or  opportunity  to  master  the  in- 
tricacies of  formulae,  which  are  usually  so  perplexing 
to  all  but  expert  mathematicians. 

The  views  expressed  in  the  book  are  the  result  of 
many  years'  experience  in  the  class  room,  the  lecture 
room  and  the  laboratory,  and  were  adopted  only 
after  the  most  rigid  test  of  actual  and  oft-repeated 
experiment  by  the  author. 

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ORIGINAL  PAPERS 

DYNAMO  MACHINERY 

AND    ALLIED    SUBJECTS. 

By  JOHN  HOPKINSON,  F.R.S. 

Uniform  with  Thompson's  "  Lectures  on  the  Electromagnet." 
PRIGS,  INCLUDING  POSTAGE,     $1.OO. 


This  collection  of  papers  includes  all  written  on 
electro-technical  subjects  by  the  distinguished  author, 
most  of  which  have  been  epochal  in  their  character 
and  results. 

The  papers  are  arranged  according  to  subject.  Five 
papers  relate  wholly  or  in  part  to  the  continuous  cur- 
rent dynamo  ;  four  are  on  converters  and  one  each  on 
the  theory  of  alternating  current  machines  and  on  the 
application  of  electricity  to  light-houses. 

In  the  words  of  the  author  "The  motive  of  this 
publication  has  been  that  I  have  understood  that  one 
or  two  of  these  papers  are  out  of  print  and  not  so  acces- 
sible to  American  readers  as  an  author  who  very  greatly 
values  the  good  opinion  of  American  electrical  engi- 
neers would  desin  ." 

PUBLISHED   AND   FOR   SALE  BY 


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The 

Electromagnet, 

BY 

Prof.  SILVANUS  F.  THOMPSON,  D.SC.,  B..A.,  M.I.E.E. 

A  full  theoretical  and  practical  account  of  the  proper* 

ties  and  peculiarities  of  electromagnets,  together 

with  complete    instructions  for  designing 

magnets  to  serve  any  specific  purpose. 

Published  with  the  express  con* 

sent  and  careful  revision  of 

the  author. 

Cloth.    280  Pages.    75  Illustrations. 
Price,  $1.00. 

LECTURE  I.t  Introductory ;  Historical  Sketch  ;  Generalities 
Concerning  Electromagnets ;  Typical  Forms  ;  Polarity  ;  Uses 
in  General ;  The  Properties  of  Iron ;  Methods  of  Measuring 
Permeability  ;  Traction  Methods ;  Curves  of  Magnetization 
and  Permeability  ;  The  Law  of  the  Electromagnet ,  Hysteresis ; 
Fallacies  and  Facts  about  Electromagnets.  LECTURE  II.:  Gen- 
eral Principles  of  Design  and  Construction ;  Principle  of  the 
Magnetic  Circuit,  LECTURE  III.:  Special  Designs;  Winding  of 
the  Copper  ;  Windings  for  Constant  Pressure  and  for  Constant 
Current;  Miscellaneous  Rules  about  Winding ;  Specifications 
for  Electromagnets ;  Amateur  Rules  about  Resistance  of  Elec- 
tromagnet and  Battery  ;  Forms  of  Electromagnets ;  Effect  of 
Size  of  Coils;  Effect  of  Position  of  Coils;  Effect  of  Shape  of 
Section ;  Effect  of  Distance  between  Poles ;  Researches  of 
Prof.  Hughes;  Position  and  Form  of  Armature ;  Pole-Pieces 
on  Horseshoe  Magnets.  Contrast  between  Electromagnets  and 
Permanent  Magnets  ;  Electromagnets  for  Maximum  Traction; 
Electromagnets  for  Maximum  Range  of  Attraction  ;  Electro- 
magnets of  Minimum  Weight ;  A  Useful  Guiding  Principle ; 
Electromagnets  for  Use  with  Alternating  Currents:  Electro- 
magnets for  Quickest  Action ;  Connecting  Coils  for  Quickest 
Action;  ^Battery  Grouping  for  Quickest  Action ;  Short  Cores 
vs.  Long  Cores.  LECTURE  IV.:  Electromagnetism,  etc.  * 
Copies  of  the  above  book  promptly  mailed  to  any  address, 
postage  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  price.  Address 


RECENT  PROGRESS 


IN 


ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS 

BEING  A  SUMMARY  OF  CURRENT  PROGRESS 

IN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  CONSTRUCTION, 

OPERATION,  SYSTEMS,  MACHINERY, 

APPLIANCES,  &c.,  COMPILED 

By   CARL    HERING. 

386  pages  and  120  illustrations.    Cloth,         -        Price,  $1.00 


This  volume  contains  a  classified  summary  of  the 
recent  literature  on  this  active  and  promising  branch 
of  electrical  progress,  with  descriptions  of  new  appa- 
ratus and  devices  of  general  interest. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter  I.— Historical.  Chapter  II.— Development 
and  Statistics.  Chapter  III.— Construction  and  Opera- 
tion. Chapter  IV. — Cost  of  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion. Chapter  V. — Overhead  Wire  Surface  Roads. 
Chapter  VI. — Conduit  and  Surface  Conductor  Roads. 
Chapter  VII.  —  Storage  Battery  Roads.  Chapter  VIII. 
—Underground  Tunnel  Roads.  Chapter  IX.  -High 
Speed  Interurban  Railroads.  Chapter  X. — Miscellan- 
eous Systems.  Chapter  XI. — Generators,  Motors  and 
Trucks.  Chapter  XII. — Accessories. 

Copies  of  "Recent  Progress  in  Electric  Railways,"  or 
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SECOND  EDITION,  JUST  ISSUED. 
Revised.    Enlarged,    Entirely   Rewritten. 

A  DICTIONARY  OF 

ELECTRICAL  WORDS. 

TERMS  ^  PHRASES. 


By   EDWIN  J.  HOUSTON.  A.M. 

562  Large  Octavo  Pages.        670  Illustrations.       Price,  $5.00. 

Some  Idea  of  the  scope  of  this  timely  and  important 

work  and  of  the  immense  amount  of  labor  Involved  in  it,  may 
be  formed  when  it  is  stated  that  it  contains  definitions  of  about 
5,OOO  DISTINCT  WORDS,  TERMS  OR  PHRASES. 

The  Dictionary  is  not  a  mere  word  book.  The  words,  terms 
and  phrases  are  invariably  followed  by  a  snort,  concise 
definition,  giving  the  sense  in  which  they  are  correctly  em- 
ployed and  a  general  statement  of  the  principles  of  elec- 
trical science  on  which  the  definition  is  founded. 

1  As  one  feature,  an  elaborate  system  of  cross  references  has 
been  adopted,  so  that  it  is  as  easy  to  find  the  definitions 

as  the  words,  and  aliases  are  readily  detected  and  traced. 

The  typography  is  excellent,  being  large  and  bold, 
and  so  arranged  that  each  word  catches  the  eye  at 

a  glance  by  standing  out  in  sharp  relief  from  the  page. 

COPIES  OP  THE  DICTIONARY,  OR  OF  ANT  OTHER  ELECTRICAL 
WORK  PUBLISHED,  WILL  BE  MAILED  TO  ANY  ADDRESS  IN  THE 
WORLD,  postage  prepaid,  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE.  REMIT  BY  P.  O. 
ORDER,  DRAFT,  REGISTERED  LETTER  OR  EXPRESS  AND  ADDRESS  : 

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ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 

SPECIFICATIONS 


FOR  THE  USE   OF 

ENGINEERS  AND  ARCHITECTS, 

By   E.  A.  MERRILL. 

The  author  has  drawn  up  a  set  of  specifications  covering  the 
various  classes  of  lighting  installations,  which  will  serve  as 
forms  for  any  special  type  or  character  of  plant,  and  which  are 
at  the  same  time  full  enough  to  cover  the  ordinary  installation 
of  electrical  apparatus  and  electric  light  wiring.  The  book  will 
prove  especially  useful  to  architects  and  engineers  who  desire  a 
full  knowledge  of  the  necessary  requirements  of  the  various 
classes  of  electrical  installations  in  order  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  insurance  inspectors  and  the  conditions  of  safety.  The 
latest  rules  are  given  of  the  (l)  National  Electric  Light  Asso- 
ciation.  (2)  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  (3)  New 
England  Insurance  Exchange. 

OTHER    CONTENTS: 

Specifications  for  the  Installation  of  Electric  Lighting  Plants. 
—General  Specifications.— Installation  of  Dynamos  und  Switch- 
boards.—Alternate  Current  Converter  System.  Constant  Poten- 
tial.—General  Specifications  for  Alternate  or  Direct  Current  Dy- 
namos for  Parallel  System  of  Distribution.— Arc  Dynamos.— Fix- 
tures, etc.— Interior  Wiring.— Two -Wire,  Direct  or  Alternating 
Current  System.— Three-Wire  System.— Three-Wire  System 
Adapted  to  Two-wire  System.— Arc  System.— Conduit  System, 
Two-Wire.— Interior  Wiring  for  Central  Station  Plants.— Pole 
Lines.— Low  Potential,  Direct  Current,  Two  or  Three-Wire. - 
Alternating  System.— Street  Lighting  Circuits.— Specifications 
for  Steam  Plant.  

Cloth.  176  pages,          Price,  including  postage,  $1.50. 


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JUST    PUBLISHED. 

The  Eleetrie  Railway 

IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE. 

By  0.  T-  CROSBY  and  Dr.  LOUIS  BELL 

400  Octavo  Pages,  179  Ifetrations.  Price,  $2.50. 

This  is  the  Jirst  SYSTEMATIC  TREATISE  that  has 
been  published  on  the  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY,  and 
it  is  intended  to  cover  the  GENERAL   PRINCI- 
PLES OF  DESIGN,   CONSTRUCTION 
AND  OPERATION. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS: 

Chapter   I.  General  Electrical  Theory. 

II.  Prime  Movers. 

III.  Motors  and  Car  Equipment. 

IV.  The  Line. 

V.  Track,  Car  Houses,  Snow  Machines. 

VI.  The  Station. 

VII.  The  Efficiency  of  Electric  Traction. 

VIII.  Storage  Battery  Traction. 

IX.  Miscellaneous  Methods  of  Electric  Traction. 

X.  High  Speed  Service. 

XI.  Commercial  Considerations. 

XII.  Historical  Notes. 

APPENDICES  : 

Appendix  A.    Electric  Railway  vs.  Telephone  Decisions. 

B.  Instructions  to  Linemen. 

C.  Engineer's  Log  Book. 

*'         D.    Classification  of  Expenditures  of  Electric 

Street  Railways. 
"         E.    Concerning  Lightning  Protection,  by  Prof. 

Elihu  Thomson. 

Copies    of    CROSBY  AND    BELL'S    ELECTRIC 
RAILWAY,  or  of  any  other  Electrical  or  Street  Railway 
Book  published,  will  be  promptly  mailtd  to  any  address  in 
the  world,  postage  prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price, 
i  Address 

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Times  Building,  New  York. 


PRINCIPLED    OK 

DYNAMO  ELECTRIC  MACHINES 

AND 

Practical  Directions  for  Designing 
and  Constructing  Dynamos, 

By  CARL    HKltlNU. 

Sixth  Thousand.    279  pages.    59  illustrations        Price,  $2.50. 


CONTENTS. 

Review  of  Electrical  Units  and  Fundamental  Laws. 

Fundamental  Principles  of  Dynamos  and  Motors. 

Magnetism  and  Electromagnetic  Induction. 

Generation  of  Electromotive  Force  in  Dynamos. 

Armatures. 

Calculation  of  Armatures. 

Field  Magnet  Frames. 

Field  Magnet  Coils. 

Regulation  of  Machines. 

Examining  Machines. 

Practical  Deductions  from  the  Franklin  Institute  Tests 

of  Dynamos. 

The  So-called  "Dead  Wire"  on  Gramme  Armatures. 
Explorations  of  Magnetic  Fields  Surrounding  Dynamos. 
Systems  of  Cylinder-Armature  Windings. 
Table  of  Equivalents  of  Units  of  Measurements. 


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THE  PIONEER  ELECTRICAL  JOURNAL  OF  AMERICA. 

THE  ELECTRICAL  WORLD 

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AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL.  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


FEB   29  194A 

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LD  21-100m-7,>40  (6936s) 

TB 


